Modulation Systems Used In Satellite Communications Computer Science Essay

Modulation Systems Used In Satellite Communications Computer Science Essay Satellite is the one of the greatest means of communication carrying a large chuck of voice and data stream from one part of the horizon to the other as compared to other medium. In this modern age, communication satellite networks are an indispensable part of the major telecommunication systems. Satellite interconnects the nodes and provides some better advantages in application than the traditional communication systems such as interconnecting large traffic nodes (e.g. telephone exchanges), mobile communication and provision of end to end connections directly to users, television and sound broadcast directly to the public [1]. To provide the optimum quality of services (QoS) different types of design techniques needs to be consider for different purposes like distinct types of modulation and coding (channel and source) techniques are used for specific purpose, link budget calculations, selection of radio frequency (RF) etc. Other dominating factors are: permitted earth station size and complexity, the size and the shape of the service area etc [2]. The objective of this paper is to describe different types of modulations systems using for satellite communications. In this report, first I am trying to give some basic information related to the modulation systems and then bring all possible modulation schemes used in satellite communications. Modulation: In general view, modulation is the process where the characteristics (phase, frequency or amplitude) of the high frequency carrier are varied in accordance with the baseband signal. The baseband signal carries the basic information such as the output of video camera, voice coder or digital television. In practical point of view, it is more convenient to carry the modulation at the intermediate frequency-typically 70MHz [1]. Satellites are usually operate at Gigahertz range of frequency and the modulation signals are up-converted to the transmission frequency and amplified before going on air [1].The term modulation is also used to describe certain types of baseband processing like Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) or Pulse Code modulation (PCM) [2]. Modulation Systems for Satellite Communications: We can divide the modulation systems in two broad categories like Analogue Modulation and Digital Modulation Analogue modulation is Amplitude Modulation, Frequency Modulation and the phase Modulation. Digital Modulation is divided into several categories and each of those uses in specific purpose. Analogue Modulation: Let consider a sinusoidal wave f(t): f(t) = A cos {2*à Ã¢â€š ¬*f c(t)+ÃŽÂ ±}..(A) Where A is the amplitude, f c is the carrier frequency and theta is the phase of the wave with respect to the information signals. When the amplitude of the carrier wave is changed, then the wave is called amplitude modulated and scheme is known as the amplitude modulation. Likewise when frequency or phase of the wave is altered then it called frequency modulated and phase modulation respectively and techniques are known as frequency and phase modulation respectively [1]. Amplitude Modulation: As mentioned above, a carrier wave is said to be amplitude modulated when the amplitude of the carrier varies with respect to the baseband signal. An amplitude modulated signal can be given as V(t)= A{1+m(t)}cos (2*à Ã¢â€š ¬*fc) (1) In equation (1), m(t) is the message signal and the fc is the carrier frequency. A{1+m(t)} is the amplitude of the carrier and it varies accordance with the signal m(t). If m(t) is the sinusoidal signal and Am and fm is the amplitude and the frequency of the m(t) respectively, then it can be written as follows V(t)= A{1+Am sin2*pi*fm}cos (2*à Ã¢â€š ¬*fc) .(2) The spectral efficiency of V(t) can be obtain by expanding equation (3) and it can be shown that there are two side bands in the spectrum like upper and lower. The upper and lower sidebands consists of same spectral shape as that of the message signal m(t) [1]. The main advantages of the AM is that amplitude modulated carrier can be easily detected by using a simple envelop detector. An envelope detector is the simple large time constant RC circuit. But the difficulty is that AM modulation is rarely use for satellite communications because [1]: An amplitude modulated signal is very susceptible to the signal fluctuation It requires very high Signal to Noise ratio for desire amount of quality. AM is used in laser inter-satellite links (ISL) in an alternate form called ON-OFF keying. There are two forms of AM systems: Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) Single Side Band Modulation (SSB) In DSB-SC the carrier frequency is suppressed and only side bands are transmitted. In this case the amplitude of the wave does not follow the amplitude of the signal and as a consequence of that it reduces the simplicity of the demodulation in FM. DSB-SC is not used in the satellite communications but this technique is good for understanding the SSB modulation [1]. SSB is another alternative form of the AM systems. This technique is suitable for the application where the bandwidth is the premium. In AM modulation, both the side bands consist of baseband information and transmission of same information twice showing the redundancy. In this case, SSB modulation, this redundancy is cut-off by removing one of the sideband so the bandwidth of the RG signal is same as the bandwidth of the baseband signal. Sometimes the carrier is also removed then it is called SSB-SC (suppressed carrier) [1]. SSB is detected at the receiver end using synchronous detector. There are two factors playing an important role to make the SSB suitable for the satellite communications: occupied bandwidth and the required carrier to noise ratio. The most common application of the SSB in the satellite communication is to multiplex voice signals into a composite baseband signal. Another form of SSB is using in the mobile satellite communication is known as the ACSSB (Amplitude C ompanded SSB) because in mobile satellite service efficiency of the bandwidth is desired. Frequency Modulation: The FM systems are widely used in satellite communications. FM system is appropriate for those cases where the baseband signals are in analogue form. In FM, frequency of the carrier signal is varied with the message signal[1]. This scheme exploits where simple receivers are essential for transmission of the digital data[4]. An example is Inmarsat Paging system because an important requirement of the paging system is the need for simple, low-cost and rugged receiver [1]. The most common methods of modulation used in the fixed-satellite service are FM for analogue signals [5]. FM has been largely used in satellite communications. It is particularly convenient when a single carrier per transponder is used and where the constant envelope of the FM signals allows the power amplifiers to operate at saturation, thus making maximum use of the available power.[5] Digital Modulation: In digital modulation techniques baseband signals can be modulated by altering the one or more of its basic parameter: amplitude, frequency and phase. According to this there are three basic modulation schemes in digital modulation like Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) and Phase Shift Keying (PSK). There are many variations and combination of these techniques. The combination of ASK and PSK is also known as the QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation).Table: 1 below showing list of some digital modulation schemes. Some of the schemes can be derived from more than one parent schemes [3]. Abbreviations Alternate Abbreviations Descriptive names FSK BFSK MFSK FSK Frequency Shift Keying (Generic name) Binary Frequency Shift Keying M-ary Frequency Shift Keying PSK BPSK QPSK OQPSK à Ã¢â€š ¬/4-QPSK MPSK PSK 4PSK SQPSK Phase Shift Keying (Generic Name) Binary Phase Shift Keying Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Offset QPSK, Staggered QPSK à Ã¢â€š ¬/4 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying M-ary Phase Shift Keying CPM SHPM MHPM LREC CPFSK MSK LRC LSRC GMSK TFM CORPSK FFSK Continuous Phase Modulation Single h (modulation index) phase modulation Multi h phase modulation Rectangular pulse of length L Continuous phase frequency shift keying Minimum phase shift keying, Fast frequency shift keying Raised cosine of pulse of length L Spectrally raised cosine pulse of length L Gaussian Minimum shift keying Tamed frequency shift keying Correlative PSK QAM ASK Quadrature amplitude modulation Amplitude shift keying QORC QOSRC SQORC Q2PSK UF-OQPSK TSI OQPSK SQAM XPSK Quadrature overlapped raised cosine modulation Quadrature overlapped square raised cosine modulation Staggered QORC Quadrature Quadrature phase shift keying Inter-symbol interference/Jitter free OQPSK Two symbol interleaved OQPSK Superposed QAM Cross-correlated QPSK Table: Digital Modulation using in satellite commiunications. As the advance in technology and limitation of analogue modulation it is now most of the satellite using digital modulation techniques and providing some advantages over analogue modulation like better performance, error detection and correction efficiency, signal to noise ratio etc. So in this paper focus are mainly given to the various types of digital modulation systems. We can divide digital modulation systems into two large categories [1]; Constant Envelop Modulation and Non- Constant Envelop Modulation and The constant envelop class is generally considered as the most suitable for the satellite communications because it minimizes the effect of non-linear amplification in the high power amplifier like TWTA (Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier) or KTA (Klystron Tube Amplifier). In this case the generic FSK is not suitable for satellite communication because it has very low bandwidth efficiency as compared to PSK systems [5].In this section of the report a brief description of different types of digital modulation systems using in satellite communication is given. PSK BPSK QPSK: In PSK system, envelop is constant but the phase changes discontinuously from symbol to symbol. There are two types of classic PSK schemes like BPSK (Binary PSK) and QPSK (Quadrature PSK). Generally, PSK modulation systems with M-ary signals can be used and its known as MPSK [5]. MPSK is more suitable than MFSK because it provides better Power Nyquest efficiency than MFSK. In mobile satellite communication, the most commonly used digital modulation system have been BPSK and different forms of QPSK. It is not surprising that higher order modulation are providing the better performance and efficient as well but they are more sensitive to the channel impairments. Recently, higher order PSK, 16-QAM is using for this purpose. [1] PSK modulation systems easily represented in the I-Q plane where I and Q axes are normal to each other. One point in I-Q plane is providing the information about the signal state [1]. PSK scheme include two basic techniques like BPSK and QPSK. In BPSK one binary code is represented by the two phases 0 and 180 where in QPSK two binary codes is represented by the four phases: 0, 90, 180 and 270. In multi level PSK, the higher the order the more requirement of power to achieve the same amount of performance [5]. PSK is using for satellite communication because PSK signal can be transmitted through the non-linear channel of a satellite and it depends on the proper choice of the modem filters [5]. Other types of modulation systems use in satellite communications are Quadrature schemes where the modulated signals are represented in terms of two channels like I and Q. Three schemes of Quadrature modulation are given below. OQPSK, offset QPSK or OKQPSK (offset keying QPSK), also known as the SQPSK (Staggered QPSK), is a modified form of QPSK. In the OQPSK, the value of Q and I channel not changing at the same instant because the value of the Q-channel baseband is delayed by the duration of one symbol. By using this property, OQPSK signals provide the reduction of the non-linear distortion when passing through non-linear element. So in this case, a better performance can be expected in the non-linear satellite channel as compared to the QPSK [7]. In OQPSK systems, maximum phase change is limited to 90. Its one of the reasons why OQPSK is advantageous for satellite channels and is used in satellite links [1]. MSK (minimum shift keying) is another coherent frequency shift keying modulation systems with modulation index 0.5. It also shows the non-linear property through a non-linear satellite channel and the signal has constant envelop.[5] MSK is spectrally more efficient than the QPSK and OQPSK because its spectrum has wider main lobe than QPSK and OQPSK [9]. QAM: It is seen that as there is a very limited bandwidth available for the satellite channels, the research for spectrally efficient modulation technique is essential for this application. Here QAM is used with the modified signal constellations for wideband satellite communication systems. [8] Because of its constant envelop to combat the non linearity of the satellite channel; M-ary phase shift keying is conventionally used in digital satellite communications systems. But when higher spectral efficiency is expected it cost more power than the other schemes. The main objective of modifying the QAM signal constellation is to reduce its sensitivity to the channel non linearity [8]. FSK: As described above, in Frequency Shift Keying systems, frequency is shifting in accordance with the message state change [1]. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BFSK) is the simplest form of the FSK allowed only two frequency states and this system can be extended to M level of frequency shifting then it is known as the M-ary FSK. In M-ary FSK N numbers of bits are combined to form a symbol. [1] M-FSK is a power efficient modulation technique which power efficiency can be increased by increasing the number of frequencies (M) at the cost of additional complexity and smaller bandwidth efficiency. This modulation system is found appropriate for some low rate and low power applications such as Global paging via satellite communications [10]. M-FSK can be used for in land mobile satellite communications where the numbers of user are stationary. It is valid for low data rate application like paging via satellites [10]. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) Modulation OFDM is a mature digital multi-carrier modulation technique has been used in physical layer of broadband wireless air interface standard like IEEE 802.11/Wi-Fi and 802.16/WiMax as well as digital video broadcast-Terrestrial DVB-T [11]. Simultaneously, OFDM modulation is attracting more attention for satellite communications and now it is using for DVB-TH. OFDM modulation systems also use in Military satellite communication. Coded Orthogonal Frequency division Multiplexing Modulation (C-OFDM) A COFDM modulation system is resistance to the frequency selective fading. This type of fading is seen in the wideband mobile communications. This system is useful for the digital audio and video broadcasting over a long distance. In future, C-OFDM systems would be one of the candidates for direct sound broadcast satellite systems [1]. Trellis Coded Modulation (TCM) Error correction coding and modulation are combined in Trellis coded modulation systems. To transmit information over the power-limited and band-limited channel, the modulation and the channel coding must be optimized jointly [12]. TCM with Octal Phase Modulation or 8-PSK 8-PSK is a constant amplitude modulation system with higher bandwidth efficiency. The first TCM application to satellite transmission occurred with the 8-PSK trellis codes. Using a 72 M Hz transponder bandwidth, transmission at up to 155.52 Mbits/s have been realized [5]. TCM with 8-PSK provides high bit rate which is essential in future for the high bit rate application like images, TV and HDTV services over the satellite transmission [5]. There are various forms of TCM like PTCM (pragmatic) and PPTCM (Punctured PTCM). The PTCM codes are interesting for satellite transmissions. As an example, a new coding systems using the PTCM 2/3-8PSK code concatenated with Reed -Solomon code in the INTELSAT IDR service and is expected to increase the capacity up to 25% base on the standard A earth station and INTELSAT VII space segment conditions [5]. As the demand is increasing for higher bandwidth efficiency, the QAM trellis codes could find the potential applications in HDTV satellite transmissions in the future. But the main limitation of trellis codes applying in the QAM using in the satellite communications is their non-constant amplitude and more distortion occur when pass through the NLA (Non-linear amplifier) [13]. A precise amplitude control must be used in the receiver end [5]. Trellis coded 16-PSK and 16-QAM modulation systems are used for satellite communications. But the fact is that when the modulation level increases, the constant envelop M-ary PSK modulation systems are inferior to the QAM systems. On the other hand, QAM suffers more distortion in the non-linear satellite communications channels [14]. QAM is suitable for geostationary orbit satellite channel with only Gaussian impairments because of being amplitude and phase modulated signal, QAM is more sensitive to the effects of interference and fading than MPSK [15]. Single Channel Per Carrier FM Modulation with syllabic Companding (SCPC FM) The main advantage of using SCPC FM modulation with syllabic Companding in satellite communication is to increase the limited capacity and this capacity increment is fully depends on the syllabic companding. The compadors in the transmission side take a wide volume of speech signals and reduce by the compressor with small amount of deviations. As a consequence of that in the same bandwidth it would be possible to employee more channels for transmission. And at the receiver end , the expender returns the original voice signals and during the speech pauses suppress the noise link[16]. This bandwidth efficiency can also be applied to the domestic satellite systems where the use of a small earth station and a large number of routes operating with few channels are important [16]. In future for the larger satellite (IntelSat IVA or V), the inefficient use of bandwidth of satellite channel by small carriers, especially in the transponder one of the factors which limits the total achievable capacity of bandwidth. In this case, the use of a SCPC companded FM would significantly increase the total capacity of the satellite bandwidth without increasing the total segment cost of the earth stations like other modulation systems [16]. From research it can be shown that the use of SCPC FM with compandors will significantly improve the economic scenario associated with the small earth stations. Wavelet Packet Modulation (WPM): WPM is a multicarrier modulation system like OFDM using Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT). DWT is a transformation technique which is a presentation of the composite signal in time and frequency domain. So in WPM, packets structure is divided into time and frequency domain. So when any interference is realize, in TDMA or FDMA system all packets are degraded but in case of WPM, packets are keep away from the interference with the help of providing the appropriate packet structure [17]. Both WPM and OFDM are multicarrier modulation system but the difference is OFDM uses FFT to combine the transmission where WPM use DWT and Bit Error Rate (BER) of WPM is much better than the OFDM. Similarity between these modulation systems is High Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR). For improving the performance of OFDM, single carrier OFDM (SC-OFDM) is proposed where decreasing PARP was the main goal. It is seen that the PARP is also high in WPM so SC-OFDM can be used to improve efficiency of the WPM. SC-WPM also can be used by exploiting the principal of SC-OFDM [17]. Some experiment shows that the WPM is the effective modulation systems for satellite communications and with lower PARP, SC-WPM would enable the broadband satellite communications [17]. PARP performance of SC-WPM is superior to WPM and OFDM. The BER performance of the WPM is better than OFDM. Multi-Level Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying (MGFSK) MGFSK is a modulation systems use in the satellite communications. It also exploiting the technique of narrow band FM which has constant envelop throughout the signal. MGFSK is suitable for satellite communications where the transponders are in saturations and it is also useful for the transmitter where output amplifier is also saturated [18]. As compared to the 8PSK bandwidth efficiency (3 bit/s/Hz), MGFSK providing bandwidth efficiency is 6 bit/s/Hz [18]. BW efficiency of MGFSK is very similar to the 64 QAM but 64 QAM is not feasible to use in satellite communication because it requires highly linear and well-equalised satellite channels [18]. The key applications of MGFSK are in those satellites which trucking of ISP backbone traffic, satellite news gathering and military satellite applications. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Pulse code modulation system is another technique which is employed in the satellite communications. Here in PCM the main aim is to coding the analogue signal for digital representation and then transmitter by using digital techniques. In PCM, analogue signals are sampled in a periodic manner of time in a rate of Nyquest Sampling rate (twice the highest of baseband frequency) and then quantized in agreed manner. To keep the error in certain level, quantization step should keep as low as possible. [5] Different types of pulse code modulation are seen like DPCM and ADPCM. Other Modulation Systems use in Satellite Communications Delta modulation (AM), Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), Pulse Time Modulation (PTM) etc. Spread Spectrum modulation systems are closely related to the PCM [1]. Conclusion: In this report it has been trying to make an overview of the modulation system used in the satellite communication channels. A different type of modulation systems has been described. The selection of modulation systems is depends on the various factors like type of the channels, constraints imposed by the earth stations (for fixed satellite, direct broadcast services and mobile satellite services), hardware limitations etc [1]. One fundamental characteristic of the satellite communications channels is the trade-off between the bandwidth and the power to obtain the received signal with certain level of quality. In case of the bandwidth limited channels, spectrally efficient modulation systems are used where penalty is paying for additional carrier power. In the power limited links, bandwidth efficient modulation is using which related to the hardware constraints as well. References: [1]. Raicharia, M.,[ 1995] Satellite Communication Systems: Design Principles, 2nd Edition, 1999, ISBN:0-333-74722-4, Macmillan Press Ltd,Baisingstoke, RG21 6XS. [2]. Couch, L W., Digital and Analogue Communication Systems, 5th Edition. 1997, Prantice Hall, Upperside river, NJ-07458, ISBN: 0-13-522583-3. [3] . Fuqin, Xiong., [August, 1994] Modem techniques in satellite communications, IEEE Communications Magazine, p. 84-98. [4]. Fthenakis, E., Manual of the Satellite Communications, McGraw-Hill Inc, 1984. [5]. Handbook of the Satellite Communications (HSC), 3rd Edition, pp: 242-275, http://www.scribd.com/doc/7047432/Handbook-on-Satellite-Communications, Last Visited 25.03.10 [6]. Taggart, D., Kumar, R., Cooper, L. , Wagner, N., Goo, G., Affects of Tone interference on the performance of QPSK and 8-PSK modulation in satellite communications, 2004, Arospace Conference, 2004. Proceedings. 2004. IEEE. [7]. Juing, Fang., [March, 1996] The other digital modulation techniques. ITU-R, Doc. 4HB/14, 25-28 March 1996. [8]. Kim, J., Liu, J,. Kwatra, S.C., Quadrature Amplitude Modulation Schemes with Modified Signal Constellations for a Wideband Satellite Communications, Military Communication Conference, 1995. MILCOM, 95. Conference Record, IEEE. [9]. Pasupathy, S. Mimimun Shift Keying : A Spactrally efficient Modulation, IEEE Communication Magazine, 1994, Vol 17, Issue:4, pp:16-22. [10]. Khalona, R.A., performance of a M-ary fsk modulation in a land mobine satellite communcaitin channel, Universatl personal Commuinication, 1994, pp: 430-434. [11]. Ludong, W; Jezek, B., ofdm modulation tecnnique for military satellite communciations, Military Communications Conference, 2008. MILCOM 2008. IEEE , 2008, pp: 1-7. [12]. Ungerboeck, G., [January, 1982] Channel coding with multilevel/phase signals, IEEE Trans. on IT-28. [13]. [Flash-TV] Flash-TV: Flexible and Advanced Satellite Systems for High Quality Television, with Interconnection with IBCNs, Race-II Project R2064. [14]. Benedetto, S.; Pent, M.; Zhang, Z., trellis coded 16-psk and 16-qam modualtion for satellite communicaiotns, Global Telecommunications Conference, 1988, and Exhibition. Communications for the Information Age. Conference Record, GLOBECOM 88., IEEE , 1988, Vol: 1, pp: 125-130. [15].Evans, B.G., Satellite Communication Systems, 3rd Edition, 2008, ISBN: 0-85296-899, Lightning Source UK Ltd. Milton Keynes. [16]. Evans ,B.G., Kernot ,R.J., Satellite-communication system employing single -channel /carrier frequency modulation with syllabic companding, IEE,1975, Vol: 122, Issue: 7, pp: 703-709. [17]. Sakakibara, H.; Okamoto, E.; Iwanami, Y., A Wavelet Packet Modulation Method for Satellite Communications, TENCON 2005, IEEE region 10, 2005, pp:1-5. [18]. Fitch, M., Boyd, I., Briggs, K., Steitiford, K., Gaussian multi-level FM for high-bandwidth satellite communications, University college of London (UCL), http://keithbriggs.info/documents/MGFSK_paper1_IB2_mrf-feb27.pdf, last visited: 27.03.10.

Research Plan Essay

As part of your research plan, you must first draft a research question for your research paper that will guide the rest of your writing. A research question, which is more specific and focused than a general topic, is the question that your research paper will be answering. For example, if your general area of interest is Social Security, a possible research question might ask â€Å"How could low-income families save more money if the United States had a reformed Social Security plan that included personal retirement accounts? † As you develop a research question, keep in mind that you will need to research sources to support your topic. Do not pick a one-sided question that will limit your research. Instead, develop a research question that lends itself to further exploration and debate—a question you genuinely want to know the answer to. Try to pick a research question that is not too broad (covering too much) or too narrow (covering too little). It should be broad enough to be discussed in a short research paper. What is your general topic or area of interest? Recycling What is it about your general topic of interest that interests you? The topic of recycling interests me because there are some cities that so not make recycling a priority and I believe it is important to preserve for future generations. What questions do you have about the topic that you would like to investigate? List them. What is the history of recycling? What is being done in school systems to promote recycling? What are the benefits of recycling? What can be done in cities where recycling is not a priority to make residents recycle? The effects if recycling is not made a priority. What are the financial benefits to a community where recycling is a priority? Would any of the questions you listed about the topic make a good subject for a research paper? Pick or adapt one question and make it into a research question. What are the benefits of recycling? Why do you think this research question is appropriate for a research paper? I think this is an appropriate question for a research paper because there are many benefits with much information of the benefits. How is your research question significant or relevant to a wider community? My research question is relevant to a wider community because it is a worldwide issue in today’s society with much room for improvement. What background information provides the preliminary grounds for your research? I was shocked at how many people I have come to know that do not make it a priority because it is simply easier to toss it away. What are some expert or authoritative sources of information on this research question? The University of Phoenix library What type of materials will you need to review for your research paper? Plenty of articles to support the bases of my paper. What procedures will you follow to conduct your research? I will need to further brain storm and take notes on the articles I will be using for my paper and conpilling several other sources to ensure I have enough material to use. What difficulties do you anticipate in conducting your research? There is plenty of research out there and I need to cut it down to what is most important and relevant to what I am writing. Write a 250- to 300-word paragraph summarizing your reearch plan. Include the following: †¢The topic you have chosen for your final project. †¢What you hope to learn from your research. †¢What aspect of your topic you plan to focus on in your research and writing. This paragraph is just an intro of sorts. Don’t begin with â€Å"The topic I have chosen, or My topic is †¦ † — write in 3rd person (he, she, it, or in general terms) Recycling is a relatively new concept with very few states enforcing this as a law. Although recycling has only been around for about forty years it has come a long way in how it is viewed by many people and states. People across the country have now come to see the long term benefits to recycling and how it will benefit our society by reducing their carbon foot print and how it benefits the environment. While recycling has made big strides there is still much room for improvement with public awareness. There has been a big push in elementary schools recently, children are being taught from a young age, the benefits of long term recycling. There are many states such as California and, Oregon requiring deposits when purchasing drinking beverages to promote recycling by its residents, regardless if the person lives there or not, the deposit must be paid. This is just an example of ways other states are making recycling a priority. By being vigilant and constantly making recycling a priority we can reduce the amount of waste in landfills each year thus eliminating the effects of global warming and the release of methane emitted into the atmosphere and the pollution of the waterways. By committing to recycling not only is there a benefit to the environment but there can be other ways recycling can contribute to a community financially. By implementing an efficient program recycling can yield great profits. Now more than ever it is so important to make recycling a priority. Its imperative that we create a future, for the future generation to enjoy and if not made a priority children of the future will suffer.

Observation Sheets Essay

1. Old fire extinguisher in office area. (Fire regs.) 2. no fire alarm system in office and ware house 3. Heaps of PPE on the ground obstructive entrance to fire extinguishers and moreover fire exit. (Fire regs.) 4. Remove rods of steel being used as doorstops in office area (Tripping hazards). 5. Various tools and equipment of outdoor work put away nearby office zone and beneath counters. (PUWER). 6. No correct dispenser placement and no hand wash area near office. 7. Old printer and cartons of printer paper left on floor and right next to fixed electric heater, (Fire and manual handling regs). 8. A number of mobile chargers under office chair with tangled cables. Also connected to the power supply with no batteries charging. (Electricity and fire regs.) 9. Carton of vaporized cans put away beneath office desk nearby electrical plugs. (PUWER) 10. Outdoor Waste paper bins overflowing. (Welfare issue). 11. Various tools of outdoor work equipment being stored around office area and under desks. (PUWER). 12. Wall attached first aid kit absent, support cracked. First aid kit not in its correct placed. (MHSWR). 13. Old work walking boot and gloves in poor state lying nearby shelves. (PPE regs.) 14. Cleaning chemicals nearby the electric supply socket afterward to 6 volt batteries. (MHSWR). 15. Various swab buckets and vacuum cleaner sitting just inside store room door, not properly stored. Tripping hazards. 16. Drinking water dispenser in adjoining area is out of order, only tap water available for drinking. Welfare and PUWER issue 17. Heavy material stacked up outdoor the store at ground level.. (Manual handling regs.) 18. Shelving in the warehouse not being used appropriately with a number of  tools and equipment stacked up on the floor obstructive entrance to the shelves. (MHSWR). 19. At the entrance to the building stairs railing has turn out to be un-attached at the base. (Tripping hazard). GOOD POINTS/PRACTICES Noticeably observable fire exit signs and glow in the dark signs to walls showing sites of fire extinguishers. Safety warning sign board demonstrating HSE poster, firms’ certificate of legal responsibility insurance and all related safety notices Well lit and ventilated office area, good appropriate temperature. Wall attached hand cleaners, all kept clean and tidy. Ample shelving for accurate P.P.E. storage. Install new fire extinguisher/s in office. Assessment fire risk valuations. Install proper alarm system in office to reduce the risk of damages Remove all PPE from the floor and keep fire exit clear. Monitor the area to ensure fire exit remains free from obstructions at all times. Remove rods of steel from the office block Keep all entrances shut wherever possible and must installed proper door stops. Observe the situation to make sure no more rods of steel are carried hooked on the office block. Keep hand cleaners installed. Install correct hand wash dispenser Change old printers on top of its desk and put printer paper into paper closet. Old printers repaired or detached and properly disposed of. Remove chargers from power supply as soon as not in usage and have cables free from twisting. Similarly not to be port under chairs. Appropriate placement of chargers to be put in storage Remove spray cans from office area and into store room. Passing staff on the significance of protection vaporizers (spray can) away from electrical plugs. Empty the bins and clean the floors. Ensure bins are emptied on a regular basis. Spring-cleaning duties between supervise to make sure outdoor adjoining area remain clean and tidy. Remove outdoor work equipment from office and into the correct store. Ensure foot areas under desks remain free from obstructions. Ensure first aid kit is accessible for usage by all employees Change the support so first aid kit can be give back to its accurate location. Organize of any old idle P.P.E. Ensure all P.P.E. is kept clean and changed as and when necessary. Properly place the chemicals not near to electric supply must have a specific storing area; Batteries are not stored near any cleaning products. Arrange for a clear out and tidy of store room, removing and obstructions from the door area. Assign a cleaning schedule to staff to ensure store room  remains in good order. Arrange for water dispenser to be repaired or replaced and ensure fresh drinking water is available. Arrange for the water dispenser to be serviced by a professional to prevent future problems. Move heavy tools and material onto appropriate shelving inside warehouse and store at abdomen level to avoid labour-intensive handling injuries from bending. Make sure work tools is kept properly place at all times and not left outdoor somewhere it might reason damages. Tidying the warehouse and organize of any non-waste materials. Use the shelving for suitable storing of tools and supplies to have ground space clear. Make momentary reparation while waiting for to hire for a skilled welder to make a long-lasting renovation of the railing. No action required, very good practise for emergencies with power outage. Good put into practise. Conceivably elect a member of supervise to be in responsibility of bring up-to-date notices. Monitor temperatures and regulate timers accordingly as average temperature changes throughout the year. Re-fill all skin care slot machine as and when required. Good chosen room for P.P.E. storage, P.P.E in good condition.

Geography of Kuwait

Geography of Kuwait Capital: Kuwait CityPopulation: 2,595,628 (July 2011 estimate)Area: 6,879 square miles (17,818 sq km)Coastline: 310 miles (499 km)Border Countries: Iraq and Saudi ArabiaHighest Point: An unnamed point at 1,004 feet (306 m) Kuwait, officially called the State of Kuwait, is a country located on the northeastern portion of the Arab Peninsula. It shares borders with Saudi Arabia to the south and Iraq to the north and west (map). Kuwait’s eastern borders are along the Persian Gulf. Kuwait has a total area of 6,879 square miles (17,818 sq km) and a population density of 377 people per square mile or 145.6 people per square kilometer. Kuwait’s capital and largest city is Kuwait City. Most recently Kuwait has been in the news because in early December 2011 Kuwait’s emir (the chief of state) dissolved the its parliament following a protest demanding that the country’s prime minister step down. History of Kuwait Kuwait’s modern history began in the 18th century when the Uteiba founded Kuwait City. In the 19th century, control of Kuwait was threatened by the Ottoman Turks and other groups located on the Arabian Peninsula. As a result, Kuwait’s ruler Sheikh Mubarak Al Sabah signed an agreement with the British Government in 1899 that promised Kuwait would not cede any lands to any foreign power without Britain’s consent. The agreement was signed in exchange for British protection and financial aid. Throughout the early to mid-20th century, Kuwait underwent significant growth and its economy was dependent on shipbuilding and pearl diving by 1915. In the period from 1921 to 1950, oil was discovered in Kuwait and the government attempted to create recognized borders. In 1922 the Treaty of Uqair established Kuwait’s border with Saudi Arabia. By mid-20th century Kuwait began pushing for independence from Great Britain and on June 19, 1961 Kuwait became fully independent. Following its independence, Kuwait experienced a period of growth and stability, despite Iraq’s claiming of the new country. In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait and in February 1991, a United Nations coalition led by the United States liberated the country. Following Kuwait’s liberation, the U.N. Security Council drew new borders between Kuwait and Iraq based on historic agreements. The two nations continue to struggle to maintain peaceful relations today however. Government of Kuwait Economics and Land Use in Kuwait Geography and Climate of Kuwait The climate of Kuwait is dry desert and it has very hot summers and short, cool winters. Sandstorms are also common during June and July due to wind patterns and thunderstorms often occur in the spring. The average August high temperature for Kuwait is 112Â ºF (44.5Â ºC) while the average January low temperature is 45Â ºF (7Â ºC). To learn more about Kuwait, visit the Geography and Maps of Kuwait on this website.

Race essays

Race essays A prejudice is an unjustified negative attitude toward a group, a category of people, or a cultural practice. Prejudice against a group carries a strong emotional discomfort with, dislike of, or outright hatred of its members. Often it is based on a negative stereotype that resists rational argument. Some prejudices come from experience, such as unpleasant or baffling encounter with someone from another ethnic group. Many prejudices are passed along from parents to children, in messages that say We dont associate with people like that, sometimes without either generation having ever met the object of their dislike. Some come from the images that the media convey, for instance, of men and women, blacks and whites, young and old. Once people have formed attitudes in general, and prejudices in particular, they are reluctant to change their minds for several reasons: 1) The cognitive payoff, 2) The social payoff, 3) The economic payoff, 4) The psychological payoff. People cling to some attitudes like life preservers but they are persuaded to give up others. The more payoffs there off for maintaining an attitude, the more resistant it will be to change. The different casual connections between attitudes and behavior can be seen clearly in the case of prejudice. In some cases, the attitude (prejudice) leads to behavior (discrimination). Discrimination may be subtle, as when a person refuses to associate with targets of the prejudice. It may be accepted social practice, as when members of one group refuse to hire or promote people who are different from them. In extreme cases, it can take the form of efforts to control or exterminat members of the group. In the United States, prejudice has led to the lynching of blacks, bombing of synagogues, the massacre of Native Americans, the illegal imprisonment of Japanese Americans during World War II, the harassment of homosexuals, and other violent acts against minority g...

Factors Contibuting to Individual Differences in Stress Response Coursework

Factors Contibuting to Individual Differences in Stress Response - Coursework Example Suffering from some chronic illness may be a source of stress for many people. It is important to understand how to respond to these stresses and factors contributing to differences in individual responses to stress. For instance, while alcohol proves effective in managing stress in some people, it has contradicting results in others (Sher & Walitzer, 1986). Stress response is the natural coping mechanism of the body to respond to stressful events and it involves the release of ‘hormones and glucose into the bloodstream to provide extra energy and alertness’ (Gilles, 2009). Researchers in response to stress often employ different approaches such as a consideration of the stimulus, the response, or the transactional perspective. However, regardless of the approached used, it is generally recognized that the individuals exhibit differences in the ability to respond to different stressful events. The differences can be attributed to the environmental, socio-cultural, and ge netic factors specific to the individuals. Some of the individual factors include personality traits (Kazmi et al, 2009), gender, social class, culture, ethnicity, age, and genetic composition (Davidyan, 2008). This paper examines the background of these observed individual differences with a focus on three contributing factors namely the environmental, cognitive, and genetic factors. ... mographic or historic developmental factors include gender, age, ethnicity, genetic predisposition, history of trauma or abuse, and the individual medical history (Davidyan, 2008). The psychological factors include whereas the social factors include acculturation, social support, socio-economic and educational status, leisure time activities (Davidyan, 2008). Environmental factors Various studies on human epidemiology have indicated that the early life experiences contribute significantly to the development of differences in how the individuals respond to stressful events in later stages of their lives. The differences that are observed in the psychological environment in which a physical stressor occur account for the variability in stress response (Sapolsky, 1994, p.263). The researches on the developmental programming of the stress system have examined the roles played by the environmental stressors or the exogenous glucocorticoids in the development of sensitivity to stress by an individual (Claessens et al, 2011). It must be noted that these factors do not stand alone in providing the influence. The environmental factors interplay other factors like the gene combination to define the differences. The outcomes of early experiences do not determine precisely the fate of an individual in the later stages. A class of environmental, cognitive, and genetic factors takes part in molding the overall outcome of the early life experiences. Personality traits and other dispositional traits have a stake in explaining the stress responses (Avitsur et al, 2006, p.289). However, there are cases in which the environmental factors are powerful and can override other factors like the genetic factors (Claessens et al, 2011). Various aspects of the environment working at specific

Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography - Essay Example Nevertheless, he tried as much as possible to stick to his initial outline. Franklin spent about 12 years compiling his work and this had an effect on his overall autobiography. This essay will therefore analyze factors in Franklin’s autobiography that makes his work unified. The essay will also, analyze the effect of time in development of the autobiography particularly to its effectiveness and themes development. The most interesting aspect of the autobiography is that it describes Franklin’s development process. Precisely, the autobiography starts with an unprofessional Franklin and ends with a political leader. The book therefore gives a systematic description of franklin’s development. For instance, he stood out among other boys of his age. He claimed, â€Å"I was commonly allowed to govern, especially in any case of difficulty; and upon other occasions I was generally a leader among the boys and sometimes led them into scrapes† (Welliot, 1909, p. 9). Franklin begins by identifying temperance, order resolution, sincerity, industry, and tranquility as some of the important qualities that he needed to develop. This infers that he had long-term goals and plans to achieve. By coming up with the stated factors, Franklin aimed at identifying his weaknesses and those of the entire American society. Franklin also proved that the American dream is achievable through his devised systematic development process. The identification process took place in his early twenties. This infers that the objectives outlined at the beginning of the autobiography could have been lifelong achievements. Although Franklin did not develop an explicit period for his objectives, his book gives a systematic approach to his initial problems. This proves that the book had a relatively high degree of organization despite the long time he took to write it. The systematic development of the author as shown in the book proves the book to be a highly unified book. Fra nklin’s autobiography therefore begins by presenting a problem and ends with a systematic solution to the problem. The systematic development of a solution proves without a doubt that Franklin’s book is a highly unified book. Although Franklin wrote his book in parts, the autobiography has a unified structure, which combined the four basic parts into a whole manuscript. This aspect proves that its author had a plan that enabled him develop the book. The book describes Franklin through his development in a systematic format. He continually gave an encounter of his commitment to development throughout the biography. For instance while he was living in London, he claimed, â€Å"most part of the time I worked hard at my business, and spent but little upon myself except in seeing plays and in books† (Welliot, 1909, p. 47). He tried to maintain his focus on a unified biography but at times, it was not possible due to the realities of life. Therefore, some of the disco ntinuities correspond with realities in the author’s life. In fact, presenting the realities of the author’s life contributes to the development of the major theme of development in the biography. Theme development is the second factor that proves the organization standards or the unification level in the book. Acquisition of wealth, moral excellence, and improvement of communication skills are the central themes of the book. To realize a full development of these themes, the autobiograp