How to Use a Stethoscope Essay -- essays research papers

How to Use a Stethoscope Perhaps one of the greatest abilities in todays medical world is the ability doctors and nurses have to listen to heartbeats, pulses, and breathing patterns with simplicity. It doesnt require any high-tech equipment. It doesnt require a myriad of tests and examinations. It doesnt cost thousands of dollars per minute to operate. In fact, the abilities that I just mentioned are made possible by this tool a stethoscope.The stethoscope that we know today is not the stethoscope that was invented to the highest degree 200 years ago. In 1816, a young physician in Paris, France, named R.T.H. Laennec, created the first recorded stethoscope, thanks to his noble convictions. You see, Dr. Laennec was examining a female unhurried, and was embarrassed to baffle his ear to her chest. This was common practice among physicians in this time period, but Laennec was simply resistant. Instead, he recalled that sound travels through solid materials. He rolled up 24 sheets of p aper, and placed one end to his patients chest. The other end he placed to his ear, and to his amazement, listened to the noises of her chest cavity. Not only could he hear the sounds his patient was making, he noticed the sounds were louder and clearer.Of course, Laennecs design was much like a paper towel tube, so it is not at all representative of this instrument the modern binaural stethoscope. This design was created only years after the creation of the stethoscope a...

A Studentss Guide to First-Year Writing Essays -- Personal Narrative

A Studentss Guide to First-Year WritingMy Literacy in America Gloomy. Thats how I remember my year of kindergarten. It may not beat been quite as dim as my memory shows, notwithstanding my fear darkened that phase. I am not quite sure how my age impact my perception of things, but my first memories of this country I dont regard as pleasant. If I had come to the United States as an infant, I would consent been better off. Not only because infants dont communicate using words, but also because my stage in literacy did not coincide with my peers. As a five-year-old, most of us have already learned to speak. I was five, just like all the other children, and I spoke as the other children did, but I spoke Portuguese and my classmates spoke slope. In essence, I was racing with time. Although my age blinded my insight toward the race, I was trying to catch up to my peers in that I had to learn to speak, as well as follow the new things taught to us in kindergarten. Though the objectives in kindergarten are nothing native English speakers would consider challenging, for me the word nap stood as an obstacle My first day is as clear as a sliding glass door. I walked into the schoolroom hesitantly, frightened of what the new surroundings would entail. At first the other children didnt notice my differences because my physical appearance differed only slightly from my new classmates. But it wasnt long until they discovered the new addition to the class. The American kindergarteners formed a circle around me. To them, I must have been this neat new chela who came from a whole other continent. For me, they were attackers, and their weapon was the tongue. I cringed at every foreign word shot at me. How could they be so... ...lways pictured it as a task to accomplish so that I could fit in with my colleagues. After the death of my uncle, because the verbiage was a connection to him, I found myself using the language to provide a link to him. As I pro gressed from grade school to higher education, I realized that I had gr accept to like reading and writing. I often listened to the complaints of assignments from my peers, and I could rarely identify with them. I think this paper is going to be fun dont be caught dead utter that fall out loud At this stage in my life I find enjoyment in having time to convey my emotions on paper out of free will. I cant imagine how I would feel if a sudden lapse appeared in my schedule and I could read for my own gratification. I would go ballistic Since these incidents are highly unlikely, I will be content in polishing my skills through schoolwork.

Descartes Proof of God Essay -- essays research papers

Rene Descartes arguments in Meditations on First Philosophy are questionable to exactly how valid and sound they really are. His proof for the existence of God in the fifth meditation is an example of one of his invalid and therefore unsound arguments. Throughout the meditations Descartes refers to clear and distinct ideas. Descartes first introduces doubt to the reader by verbalism that one cannot trust these clear and distinct ideas. I have noticed that the senses are sometimes deceptive as it is a mark of prudence never to place our complete trust in those that have deceived us even once. (Descartes, 60) He introduces doubt through the senses, dreams, and through the possibility of an evil genius at work. For instance he states that There is no surely sign that I can tell that I am awake. If there are no sure signs that I can tell that I am awake then there is close to doubt I am awake. Therefore there is reason to doubt I am awake. (Descartes 60)This is how Descartes shows th at we may be dreaming even though during these dreams we can experience authentic truths. He also he goes on to state that, If there is reason to doubt that I am awake then there is reason to doubt that I am sitting by the fire. So then there is reason to doubt that I am sitting by a fire even though I memorise and feel a fire. (Descartes 60)This Descartes believes could be true because there may be an evil genius at work, whose sole purpose is to put his entire effort...

Destiny :: essays research papers

Pre-Destination vs. Self-DeterminationPeople like to believe that they have the freedom to choose to be or do whatever it is that they want to be or do it is, however, quite the opposite. This sense of freedom is called self-determination. At the other end of the spectrum, when no matter what we do seems to make any difference or when fifty-fiftyts just now seem to happen and we think about them as being out of our control or somehow planned by some force nameless to us (such as a God), that is called pre-destination. Self-determination has its limitations as to what people be allowed to do, but pre-destination has no limits of any kind. Self-determination is, in fact, used to mask pre-destination, to bread and butter people content in following a pre-set path that life offers. Without pre-destination, how do we know what the weather will be like, or if the sun rises, or if someone will stop at a red light? Without these paths where would our lives be going? People do these eve ry day things that are only there to keep them going down the path that they have always been on. When people get off that path, such as when they stop doing drugs, then their lives are on a refreshful track. But the new track doesnt necessarily have anything unique about it, its just a new path and already pre-determined. And once on a path, it is very difficult to veer away from the pre-determined, pre-disposed activities that a particular lifestyle requires. Smith 2Pre-destination, not our life choices, guides our lives. There is no other way to explain things such as people who grow up poor yet somehow act to create a multinational company and become multimillionaires. Although some might say that these people chose to follow a particular path that led them to their fame and fortune. Instead, it should be argued that even if these people were born poor, they were they were destined to create that company. They were given the drive to make that company into what it was. Anyone can choose to start a company, but some actually have the ability to make that company a success. Choice does not have anything to do with ability I choose to be a billionaire but I do not have the bank account to be one. Predestination explains almost ninety percent of what happens in the world, from birth to death, and even pure luck.

Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court as a Dystopian Work Essay

Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court as a Dystopian engage For years, Mark suspenders A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court has been primarily viewed as a work of simple satire. Twain, desiring to poke fun at a group of Americas cultural critics, chief among them Matthew Arnold, who claimed that cultural life in the U.S. treaded on shallow soil, takes aim at the venerated institutions of Britain. The author attempts to show that his countrys lack of romanticized amicable structures, meaning an absence of royalty, the Catholic church, and long-dead knights and princesses, was far from a cultural weakness. Twain explodes the myth around idealized chivalric society and proves it to be no insure for the Nineteenth Century man. The book follows Twains protagonist Hank Morgan, a pragmatist and the authors model of self-made, turn-of-the-century industrialist, through a time travel jump that lands him in Sixth Century England, specifically at the fabled Camelot . Here Hank, through ingenuity and entrepreneurial vigor, quickly ascends to the top of the socio-political structure of King Arthurs Court. Whats more, Twain takes great pains in ridiculing both the role of the church in England and the ignoble position and lack of intelligence of the ruling royalty. He also pokes fun at the romanticizing of English culture during this period of time by illustrating the prostrate and dependent nature of the British aristocratic system -- a system void of democratic mechanism. As a work of companionable satire, the beginning of the novel is fairly successful. At the outset of the work, Twain accomplishes what must take a leak been his original task. The opening chapters, the direct attack, the... ...mbolic of American innocence and the Morgan and his machines of destruction as symbols of capitalism and industrialization, the novel becomes not chaotic literary failure, but dystopian science fiction popularized in the Twentieth Cen tury. Where Huxley and others predicted enslavement to technology, Twain asserts that innocence and naivet have no place in and will be wiped out by modern society. His final analysis is that they cannot coexist. Works Cited Bellamy, Gladys Carmen. Mark Twain as a Literary Artist. Norman University of Oklahoma Press, 1950. DeVoto, Benard. Mark Twains America. Boston Little, Brown, and Company, 1935. Twain, Mark. A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. New York P.F. Collier and Son Company, 1889. Wagenknecht, Edward. Mark Twain The Man and His Work. Norman University of Oklahoma Press, 1935.

Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court as a Dystopian Work Essay

Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court as a Dystopian Work For years, Mark Twains A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court has been primarily viewed as a work of simple satire. Twain, desiring to poke fun at a group of Americas ethnical critics, chief among them Matthew Arnold, who claimed that cultural life in the U.S. treaded on shallow soil, takes aim at the venerated institutions of Britain. The author attempts to show that his countrys lack of romanticized social structures, meaning an absence of royalty, the Catholic church, and long-dead knights and princesses, was far from a cultural weakness. Twain explodes the myth around idealized chivalric society and proves it to be no match for the Nineteenth Century man. The book follows Twains protagonist Hank Morgan, a pragmatist and the authors model of self-made, turn-of-the-century industrialist, through a time travel jump that lands him in Sixth Century England, specifically at the fabled Camelot. Here Hank, through readiness and entrepreneurial vigor, quickly ascends to the top of the socio-political structure of King Arthurs Court. Whats more, Twain takes great pains in ridiculing both the role of the church in England and the ignoble short letter and lack of intelligence of the ruling royalty. He also pokes fun at the romanticizing of English culture during this period by illustrating the prostrate and dependent nature of the British aristocratic system -- a system void of democratic mechanism. As a work of social satire, the beginning of the novel is fairly successful. At the source of the work, Twain accomplishes what must have been his original task. The opening chapters, the direct attack, the... ...mbolic of American innocence and the Morgan and his machines of destruction as symbols of capitalism and industrialization, the novel becomes not chaotic literary failure, but dystopian science fiction popularized in the Twentieth Century. Where Huxley and others predicted enslavement to technology, Twain asserts that innocence and naivet have no place in and will be wiped out by modern society. His final analysis is that they cannot coexist. Works Cited Bellamy, Gladys Carmen. Mark Twain as a Literary Artist. Norman University of Oklahoma Press, 1950. DeVoto, Benard. Mark Twains America. capital of Massachusetts Little, Brown, and Company, 1935. Twain, Mark. A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. New York P.F. Collier and Son Company, 1889. Wagenknecht, Edward. Mark Twain The Man and His Work. Norman University of Oklahoma Press, 1935.

Is it ethical to expel children carrying drugs or alcohol to school

Last grade, over 1000 schoolchildren were suspended, excluded or expelled from New Zealand schools suffer year for medicates or alcohol-related offences, with the youngest aged 8 (Stuff, 2013). The Ministry of Education released figures showing that one In ten children who had exercise squeezen against them in relation to substances in the year 2012, was under 12 years of age (Stuff, 2013). The Education Amendment get along has come under scrutiny as It priorities the right to privacy of students.Effectively It means that schools would lose their business office to search and seize narcotics and conduct random drug tests. This, numerous educationalists argue, would worsen the problem. The ethical Issue that arises In this case amongst others Is whether schools should continue to retain their search and capture powers or should the privacy of the students be given priority as per the Education Amendment Bill. Another key issue that is begging resolution is the dilemma of whet her or not, children set in motion in possession of drugs and alcohol, should be expelled or excluded.Is protrusion of a child found In possession of narcotics in the best Interests of society and the child In question? It is important to also mention that since most of the children procured the absences from a knowing or unknowing adult, should the adult be vicariously responsible for the child take responsibility and face the consequences Instead of letting the child take the fall? Is It not the responsibility of the parent to ensure that children stay away from vices until they are archaic enough to judge for themselves?Due 1 OFF expulsion and attempt to provide some insight into whether or not it is the best course of action to employ. Thomas Hobbes (1651) proposed the idea that in order to flourish, we need a peaceful, cooperative social order (Reaches & Reaches, 2010, p. 0). Hobbes goes on to say that if there were no institutions to enforce order, we would be free to do wh atever we wanted. This would eventually lead to a state of perpetual chaos. He has called this state of chaos the state of nature and its opposite civilian state (Reaches & Reaches, 2010).This means that in order to live harmoniously, we must abide by a set of rules that are accepted by everyone and applies to everyone equally. Hobbes was of the opinion that the intravenous feeding basic facts about human life were the reason for the existence of this social contract. He theorized firstly, that each of us requires the same basic things in order to survive, secondly, scarceness is omnipresent and we need to work hard to produce the things we need. Third on the list is the equality of human power (united we stand, divided we fall).Finally, there is limited altruism, which implies that we cannot turn in that others will stand down when their interests conflict with ours. Since we do not learn the accepted rules of society on our own, we have schoolteachers and parents who amongst o ther things teach us how to exonerate in a socially acceptable manner. School helps us learn to build and maintain relationships. Most importantly attending school empowers us with knowledge to survive in the real world. Take school out of the equation and that leaves Just parents.Now consider the case of a young child who has gotten himself expelled for macrocosm peculiar(a) about his parents secret drug stash. Unable to attend school, he might not realize the difference between a Joke and a offensive because he is unaware of right and impairment, socially acceptable and unacceptable. He may develop an insecurity employ as he probably feels helpless and is shunned by his parents. These factors might lead him to become a criminal or worse, a drug addict. It is quite obvious that criminals and drug addicts are anti-social elements that need to be away(p) from the setting.It is safe to say that not all criminals are school dropouts however, most addicted to drugs havent been educated about the consequences of substance abuse and are helplessly addicted. The fond Contract Theory maintains that we need a social order in order to flourish. The only way to eliminate most of anti-social elements is to ensure that kids found in possession of drugs or alcohol remain in school to learn how to behave appropriately, and eventually grow up to become conscientious and responsible adults.The supposition of utilitarianism as stated by Reaches & Reaches (2010) encompasses three categories. Firstly, actions can be Judged to be right or wrong depending on the consequences it brings about. Secondly, in terms of examining consequences, all that matters is the summation of joy or unhappiness the action in question creates person is more important than the other. This means that actions should be Judged as right or wrong depending on the amount of happiness or unhappiness everyone experiences as a consequence.Thus a deduction can be made that Utilitarian are fundamental ly consequentialness, as they determine the ethical value based on an answer to the question what would happen as a result of doing it? (Reaches & Reaches, 2010, p. 111). Utilitarianism is divided into two categories namely, Act and Rule Utilitarianism. Act Utilitarian recall that an action must be Judged by the consequences it causes (Reaches & Reaches, 2010, p. 22). Rule Utilitarian believe that an action must be Judged on the consequence of the action becoming the norm that everyone lived by (Reaches & Reaches, 2010, p. 18-119). Therefore it can be said that Utilitarianism Judges actions based on whether they yield the best consequences and happiness for everyone or not. Upon application of the Utilitarian approach to the issue of expulsion, the action of excluding children who are found in possession of narcotics or alcohol would produce two feasible consequences. Firstly, because the child has been expelled, he ay lose interest in studying altogether. It is a proven fact tha t schools provide a protective environment that shields people from drug abuse (Bell, 2013).If they are unable to stay in that protected environment before entering the proverbial real world there is a chance that they may be negatively influenced and resort to a life of crime, drug abuse and other anti-social behavior. The second consequence of one child caught in possession of drugs being expelled could serve as an example to the other children. This might cause them to refrain from coming in contact with drugs earning punishment.Although the second consequence appears to be feasible, as many children would benefit from one child being expelled and being made an example of, it is not guaranteed that other children will not indulge in drugs and alcohol outside school. Also, going by Rule Utilitarianism, if liberation children became the norm, crime, unemployment and illiteracy rates would rise and this in turn would affect the entire nation negatively. Therefore, Act and Rule Util itarian would agree that expelling children found in possession of narcotics would be very unethical, as it loud cause much more unhappiness than happiness.Also, since Utilitarian believe that everyones happiness is equal, and that motives and intentions dont matter, causing unhappiness to one child and to the general population in the long run by expelling him from school is something they would advocate against. In conclusion, I have explored the idea of a Social Contract and the Utilitarian approach in terms of the case to determine whether or not expelling children found to be in possession of narcotics or alcohol is ethical. Taking into consideration theSocial Contract, and the possible consequences of Act and Rule based Utilitarianism I have deduced that expulsion or exclusion from school is not the best course of action. In order to suit everyones interests, it is crucial that the kids remain in school where they have the luck to learn about narcotics and socially acceptable behavior in a controlled and protected environment. After all, they are children, unable to distinguish between right and wrong, and in this case, it is imperative that Children are the future of any country and it is our moral duty to ensure that all sections we take have their best interests at heart.

Family Planning

Real Distinction between the Natural Family cookery to the Artificial Family prep bedness What is Family cookery? What be the differences between the Natural and Artificial Family Planning? Family meanis theplanningof when to extraditechildren,and the use of extradite instruction and early(a)wise techniques to implement much(prenominal) plans. Other techniques commonly utilise take on kindleuality education, checkion and man development ofsexually transmitted infections, pre-conception counselingandmanagement, andin fruitfulness management.Family planning is roughlytimes utilise as a synonym for the use of blood falsify, however, it lots includes a wide variety of forms, and practices that argon non consanguinity nurse. It is just nigh ordinarily applied to afe masculine-malecouple who wish to limit the upshot of children they check and/or to confine the timing of motherliness( as well as cognise asspacing children). Family planning whitethorn enco mpasssterilization, as well asabortion.Family planning services be defined as educational, comprehensive medical or social activities which modify individuals, including minors, to consider freely the number and spacing of their children and to select the meat by which this may be achieved. Natural family planning(NFP) comprises thefamily planningmethods approved by the roman Catholic Church. In accordance with the Churchs teachings regardingsexual behaviorin keeping with its philosophy of the dignity of the human person, NFP excludes the use of other methods ofbirth enclose, which it refers to as near hitch method. Periodic temperanceis the only method deemed lesson by the Church for curtailing motherliness. When utilise to nullify pregnancy, NFP limits sexual intercourse to naturally infertile periods portions of thecatamenial cycle, during pregnancy, and subsequentlymenopause. Various methods may be employ to identify whether a adult pistillate is likely to b efertile this in imageation may be used in attempts to either evacuate or achieve pregnancy. There argon three main types of NFP the symptoms-based methods, the calendar-based methods, and the lookfeeding orlactational amenorrhoea method.Symptoms-based methods rely on biological signs of natality, while calendar-based methods musical theme the likelihood of cornucopia based on the aloofness of ult menstrual cycles. Clinical studies by theGuttmacher comprise entrap that periodic abstinence resulted in a 25. 3 percentage failure under typical conditions, though it did non differentiate between symptom-based and calendar-based methods. Symptoms-based Some methods of NFP line biological signs of birth rate. When used out stead of the Catholic concept of NFP, these methods argon a good deal referred to simply asfertility cognizance-based methodsrather than NFP.The three immemorial signs of a womans fertility argon herbasal consistence temperature, hercervicalmucus, and he r cervical position. Com deputeerizedfertility monitorsmay track basal bole temperatures, hormonal levels in urine, changes in electrical resistance of a womans saliva or a mixture of these symptoms. From these symptoms, a woman wad learn to assess her fertility without use of a computerized device. Some transcriptions use only cervical mucus to de landmarkine fertility. cardinal well-k immediatelyn mucus-only methods are theBillings ovulation methodand theCreighton Model Fertility Care System.If two or more signs are tracked, the method is referred to as a symptothermal method. Two popular symptothermal systems are taught by theCouple to Couple Leagueand the Fertility Awareness rule (FAM) taught byToni Weschler. A study completed in Germany in 2007 found that the symptothermal method has a method efficaciousness of 99. 6%. In Canada, the symptothermal method is taught bySERENA Canadawhich is an inter-denominational organization which has been maturation the Symptothermal s ystem as a discussion section of NFP since 1955.They are likewise not specifically affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church. It is likewise taught byJustisse wellnessworks for Women, a pro-choice feminist organization that allows and supports women to combine other methods of birth control with their fertility awareness practice. A study by the man Health constitution involving 869 fertile women from Australia, India, Ireland, the Philippines, and El Salvador found that 93% could accurately interpret their bodys signals heedless of education and culture. In a 36-month study of 5,752 women, the method was 99. 86% impressive. Calendar-basedCalendar-based methods determine fertility based on a record of the length of previous menstrual cycles. They include the Rhythm Method and the regulation Days Method. The Standard Days method was developed and proven by the researchers at the Institute for Reproductive Health of Georgetown University. round of drinksBeads, unaffiliated wi th religious teachings, is a visual tool based on the Standard Days method. According to the Institute of Reproductive Health, when used as birth control, CB has a 95% hard-hittingness rating. Computer programs are gettable to avail track fertility on a calendar.Lactational amenorrhea Thelactational amenorrhea method(LAM) is a method of avoiding pregnancy based on the naturalpostpartuminfertilitythat occurs when a woman isamenorrheicand fullybreastfeeding. The rules of the method help a woman identify and possibly lengthen her infertile period. A strict version of LAM is known asecological breastfeeding. Artificial Family Planning/Birth Control, also known ascontraceptionandfertility control, refers to methods or devices used to preventpregnancy. Planning and provision of birth control is calledfamily planning.Safe sex, such as the use of male orfemale rubbers, can also help prevent transmission ofsexually transmitted diseases. Contraceptive use indeveloping countries has cut th e number ofmaternal deathsby 44% (about 270,000 deaths averted in 2008) but could prevent 73% if the full demand for birth control were met. Because juvenile pregnanciesare at great peril of adverse outcomes such aspreterm birth,low birth weight andinfant mortality, adolescents need comprehensivesex educationand rag to reproductive healthservices, including contraception.By lengthening the time between pregnancies, birth control can also improve adult womens delivery outcomes and the survival of their children. Effective birth control methods includebarrierssuch ascondoms,diaphragms, and the hinderance spongehormonal contraceptionincluding oral exam pills,patches,vaginal rings, and injectable preventives andintrauterine devices(IUDs). indispensability contraceptioncan prevent pregnancy after open sex. Long-acting reversible contraceptionsuch as implants, IUDs, or vaginal rings are recommended to reduceteenage pregnancy.Sterilizationby agent such asvasectomyandtubal ligatio nis permanent contraception. Some people regardsexual abstinenceas birth control, butabstinence-only sex education often increases teen pregnancies when offered without contraceptive education. Non-penetrative sexandoral sexare also sometimes con cheekred contraception. Birth control methods have been used since ancient times, but effective and safe methods only became available in the 20th century. For some people, contraception involves moral issues, and many cultures limit addition to birth control due to the moral and political issues involved.About 222 million women who want to avoid pregnancy in developing countries are not using a modern contraception method. Birth control increaseseconomic growthbecause of fewer dependent children, more women participating in the work force, and less consumption of scarce resources. Womens earnings, as formats,body visual sense index, and their childrens schooling and body mass index all substantially improve with greater access to contrac eption. Methods of Artificial Family Planning Artificial Family Planning/Birth control includesbarrier methods,hormonal contraception,intrauterine devices(IUDs), sterilization, and behavioral methods.Hormones can bedelivered by injection, by mouth (orally),placed in the vagina, or implanted under the skin. The intimately common types of oral contraception include the have oral contraceptive pilland theprogestogen-only pill. Methods are typically used before sex but fate contraceptionis effective shortly after intercourse. Determining whether a woman with one or more illnesses, diseases, seek factors, or abnormalities can use a particular strain of birth control is a complex medical question sometimes requiring apelvic examinationor medical tests.TheWorld Health Organization publishes a detailed list of medical eligibility criteria for each type of contraception. Birth control methods * An unrolled malelatex condom * A polyurethanfemale condom * Adiaphragmvaginal-cervicalbarrier, in its case with aquarter U. S. cointo show scale * Acontraceptive spongeset inside its blustering package * Three varieties ofbirth control pillsin calendar oriented packaging * A transdermal contraceptive patch * ANuva Ringvaginal ring * A hormonalintrauterine device(IUD) against a background showing placement in theuterus *A strapper IUD adjacent to a dimeto show scale * A split dose of two touch contraceptive pills (most morning after pills now only bespeak one) Barrier Barrier contraceptivesare devices that attempt to preventpregnancyby physically preventing spermfrom entering theuterus. They include malecondoms,female condoms,cervical caps,diaphragms, andcontraceptive spongeswithspermicide. The condom is most commonly used duringsexual intercourseto reduce the likelihood ofpregnancyand of spreadingsexually transmitted diseases(STDssuch asgonorrhea,syphilis, andHIV).It is put on a mans erectpenisand physically blocks ejaculated semen from entering the body of a sexual part ner. Modern condoms are most often do fromlatex, but some are made from other materials such aspolyurethane,polyisoprene, or lamb intestine. Afemale condomis also available, most often made ofnitrile. Male condoms have the advantage of being inexpensive, easy to use, and having few side effects. Contraceptive sponges combine a barrier with spermicide. give care diaphragms, they are inserted vaginally forward to intercourse and must be placed all over thecervixto be effective.Typical effectiveness during the introductory year of use is about 84% overall, and 68% among women who have already given birth. The sponge can be inserted up to 24 hours before intercourse and must be left in place for at least six hours afterward. Some people are allergic to spermicide used in the sponge. Women who use contraceptive sponges have an increase pretend of barm infectionsandurinary tract infections. Leaving the sponge in for more than 30 hours can result intoxic shock syndrome. hormonal Horm onal contraceptives subdueovulationandfertilization.These includeoral pills,subdermalimplants, andinjectable contraceptivesas well as thepatch,hormonal IUDsand thevaginal ring. The most commonly used hormonal contraceptive is thecombined oral contraceptive pillcommonly known as the pillwhich includes a combination of anestrogenand aprogestin(progestogen). There is also a progestin-only pill. Currently, hormonal contraceptives are available only for females. Combined hormonal contraceptives are associated with a slight increased cardiovascular risk, including a small increased risk ofvenousandarterial thrombosis. However, the benefits are greater than the risk.Oral contraceptives reduce the risk ofovarian cancerandendometrial cancerwithout increasing the risk forbreast cancer. They can lower body weight by reducingwater retention(not loss of fat), and several are used to finesse mild to moderateacne. Between 2% and 10% of women of childbearing age experience emotional and physical s ymptoms associated withpremenstrual syndrome(PMS) andpremenstrual dysphoric disorder(PMDD). Combination hormonal contraceptives often ameliorate or in effect treat these problems and can effectively treat heavy menstrual exhaust anddysmenorrhea(painful menstruation) as well.Lower doses of estrogen required by vaginal administration (i. e. , from the vaginal ring or hormonal IUDs kind of of the pill) may reduce the untoward side effects associated with higher oral doses such as breast tenderness,nausea, and headache. Progestogen-only pills and intrauterine devices are not associated with an increased risk of thromboses and may be used by women with previous venous thrombosis, or hepatitis. In those with a history of arterial thrombosis, non-hormonal birth control should be used. Progestogen-only pills may improve menstrual symptoms such sdysmenorrhea,menorrhagia, premenstrual syndrome, and anemia, and are recommended for breast-feeding women because they do not affect lactation. Ir regular bleeding can be a side effect of progestin-only methods, with about 20% of users reportingamenorrhea(often pick uped a benefit) and about 40% of women experiencing regular menstrual cycles, leaving the remaining 40% with irregular espial or bleeding. Uncommon side effects of progestin-only pills, injections, and implants include headache, breast tenderness, mood effects, anddysmenorrhea, but those symptoms often resolve with time.Newer progestins, such as drospirenone and desogestrel, minify theandrogenicside effects of their predecessors. Intrauterine devices The modernintrauterine device(IUD) is a small T-shaped birth control device, containing either copper or progesterone, which is inserted into the uterus. IUDs are a form oflong-acting reversible contraception, the most effective type of reversible birth control. As of 2002, IUDs were the most widely used form of reversible contraception, with nearly one hundred sixty million users worldwide. Evidence supports both effectiveness and safety in adolescents.Advantages of the copper IUD include its ability to provideemergency contraceptionup to quintet days after unprotected sex. It is the most effective form of emergency contraception available. It contains no hormones, so it can be used while breast feeding, and fertility returns quickly after removal. Disadvantages include the possibility of heavier menstrual periods and more painful cramps. Hormonal IUDs do not increase bleeding as copper-containing IUDs do. Rather, they reduce menstrual bleeding or stop menstruation altogether, and can be used as a treatment forheavy periods.Levonorgestrel-releasing IUDs may be used during breastfeeding whether or not they also include copper. Sterilization Surgical sterilizationis available in the form oftubal ligationfor women andvasectomyfor men. There are no remarkable long term side effects and tubal ligation decreases the risk ofovarian cancer. Some women regret such a decision about 5% over 30 years, and about 20% under 30. Short term complications are less likely from a vasectomy than a tubal ligation. incomplete method offers surety fromsexually transmitted nfections. Although sterilization is considered a permanent procedure, it is possible to attempt atubal reversalto reconnect theFallopian tubesin females or avasectomy reversalto reconnect thevasa deferentiain males. The rate of success depends on the original technique, tubal damage, and the persons age. Behavioral Behavioral methods involveregulating the timingor methods of intercourse to prevent introduction of sperm into the female reproductive tract, either altogether or when an egg may be present. LactationalFrom ancient times women have extended breastfeeding in an effort to avoid a new pregnancy. Thelactational amenorrhea method, or LAM, outlines guidelines for determining the length of a womans period of breastfeeding infertility. For women who meet the criteria, LAM is highly effective during the first six mont hs postpartumif breastfeeding is the infants only (or almost only) source of nutrition. Feeding formula, pumping instead of nursing, and feeding solids all reduce the effectiveness of LAM. Fertility awarenessCalendar-based contraceptive methodssuch as the discredited musical rhythm method and theStandard Days Methodestimate the likelihood of fertility based on the length of past menstrual cycles. To avoid pregnancy with fertility awareness, unprotected sex is restricted to a womans least fertile period. During her most fertile period, barrier methods may be used, or she may abstain from intercourse. The term natural family planning (NFP) is sometimes used to refer to any use of fertility awareness methods. However, this term specifically refers to the practices that are permitted by theRoman Catholic Church.The effectiveness offertility awareness-based methods of contraception is unknown because of the lack of completed standardized and controlled scientific trials. More effective than calendar-based methods, systems of fertility awareness that track basal body temperature, cervical mucus, or both, are known as symptoms-based methods. Teachers of symptoms-based methods take care to distance their systems from the poor reputation of the rhythm method. Many consider the rhythm method to have been obsolete for at least 20 years, and some even exclude calendar-based methods from their definition of fertility awareness.A stave Beadsbirth control chain, used for a rough estimate of fertility based on days since menstruation TheStandard Days Methodhas a simpler rule set and is more effective than the rhythm method. The Standard Days Method has a typical failure rate of 12% per year. A product calledCycle Beadswas developed alongside the method to help the user keep track of estimated high and low fertility points during her menstrual cycle. The Standard Days Method may only be used by women whose cycles are always between 26 and 32 days in length.In this system * Da ys 1-7 of a womans menstrual cycle are considered infertile * Days 8-19 are considered fertile considered unsafe for unprotected intercourse * From Day 20, infertility is considered to soak up Symptoms-based methods of fertility awareness involve a womans observation and charting of her bodys fertility signs, to determine the fertile and infertile phases of her cycle. Charting may be done by hand or with the assistance offertility monitors. Most methods track one or more of the three primary fertility signschanges inbasal body temperature, in cervical mucus, and in cervical position.If a woman tracks both basal body temperature and another primary sign, the method is referred to as symptothermal. Other bodily cues such asmittelschmerzare considered unoriginal indicators. Unplanned pregnancy rates have been reported from 1% to 20% for typical users of the symptothermal method. Withdrawal Coitus interruptus(literally interrupted sexual intercourse), also known as the withdrawal or pull-out method, is the practice of ending sexual intercourse (pulling out) before ejaculation.The main risk of congress interruptus is that the man may not perform the maneuver correctly or in a timely manner. Despite older studies claiming that no sperm was found in preejaculatory penile secretion, a more recent study states that 41% of subjects produced pre-ejaculatory samples that contained spermatozoa and in 37% a reasonable proportion of the sperm was motile. moderation Though some groups advocate totalsexual abstinence, by which they mean the avoidance of all sexual activity, in the context of birth control the term usually means abstinence from vaginally penetrative sexual activity.Abstinence is 100% effective in preventing pregnancy however, not everyone who intends to be abstinent refrains from all sexual activity, and in many populations in that respect is a significant risk of pregnancy from nonconsensual sex. Abstinence-only sex educationdoes not reduceteen pregnancy . Teen pregnancy rates are higher in students given abstinence only education, compared to comprehensive sex education. Some authorities recommend that those using abstinence as a primary method have backup method(s) available (such as condoms or emergency contraceptive pills).Non-penetrativeandoral sex will generally avoid pregnancy, but pregnancy can mute occur withIntercrural sexand other forms of penis-near-vagina sex (genital rubbing, and the penis exiting fromanal intercourse) where semen can be deposited near the entrance to the vagina and can itself start along the vaginas lubricating fluids. Emergency (after sex) Emergency contraceptives, or morning-after pills, are drugs taken after sexual intercourse intended to prevent pregnancy. Levonorgestrel(progestin) pills, marketed as Plan B and succeeding(prenominal) Choice, are available without prescription (to women and men aged 17 and older in the U.S. ) to prevent pregnancy when used within 72 hours (3 days) after unprotec ted sex or condom failure. Ulipristal(Ella) is the newest emergency contraceptive, available by prescription only for use up to 120 hours (5 days) after unprotected sex, resulting in a pregnancy risk 42% lower than levonorgestrel up to 72 hours and 65% lower in the first 24 hours following sex. Providing morning after pills to women in advance does not affect sexually transmitted infection rates, condom use, pregnancy rates, or sexual risk-taking behavior. Pharmacistsare a major source of access to emergency contraception.Morning after pills have almost no health risk, no matter how often they are used. Copper T-shaped IUDs can also be used as emergency contraceptives. Copper IUDs can be inserted up to the time of implantation (612 days after ovulation) but are generally not inserted more than tail fin days after unprotected sex. For every eight expected pregnancies, the use of levonorgestrel morning after pills will prevent seven. Ulipristal is about double as effective as levonorg estrel. Copper IUDs are more than 99% effective in reducing pregnancy risk.Family PlanningReal Distinction between the Natural Family Planning to the Artificial Family Planning What is Family Planning? What are the differences between the Natural and Artificial Family Planning? Family planningis theplanningof when to havechildren,and the use ofbirth control and other techniques to implement such plans. Other techniques commonly used include sexuality education,prevention and management ofsexually transmitted infections, pre-conception counselingandmanagement, andinfertility management.Family planning is sometimes used as a synonym for the use ofbirth control, however, it often includes a wide variety of methods, and practices that are not birth control. It is most usually applied to afemale-malecouple who wish to limit the number of children they have and/or to control the timing ofpregnancy(also known asspacing children). Family planning may encompasssterilization, as well asaborti on.Family planning services are defined as educational, comprehensive medical or social activities which enable individuals, including minors, to determine freely the number and spacing of their children and to select the means by which this may be achieved. Natural family planning(NFP) comprises thefamily planningmethods approved by the Roman Catholic Church. In accordance with the Churchs teachings regardingsexual behaviorin keeping with its philosophy of the dignity of the human person, NFP excludes the use of other methods ofbirth control, which it refers to as artificial contraception. Periodicabstinenceis the only method deemed moral by the Church for avoiding pregnancy. When used to avoid pregnancy, NFP limits sexual intercourse to naturally infertile periods portions of themenstrual cycle, during pregnancy, and aftermenopause. Various methods may be used to identify whether a woman is likely to befertile this information may be used in attempts to either avoid or achieve pr egnancy. There are three main types of NFP the symptoms-based methods, the calendar-based methods, and the breastfeeding orlactational amenorrhea method.Symptoms-based methods rely on biological signs of fertility, while calendar-based methods estimate the likelihood of fertility based on the length of past menstrual cycles. Clinical studies by theGuttmacher Institutefound that periodic abstinence resulted in a 25. 3 percent failure under typical conditions, though it did not differentiate between symptom-based and calendar-based methods. Symptoms-based Some methods of NFP track biological signs of fertility. When used outside of the Catholic concept of NFP, these methods are often referred to simply asfertility awareness-based methodsrather than NFP.The three primary signs of a womans fertility are herbasal body temperature, hercervicalmucus, and her cervical position. Computerizedfertility monitorsmay track basal body temperatures, hormonal levels in urine, changes in electrical r esistance of a womans saliva or a mixture of these symptoms. From these symptoms, a woman can learn to assess her fertility without use of a computerized device. Some systems use only cervical mucus to determine fertility. Two well-known mucus-only methods are theBillings ovulation methodand theCreighton Model Fertility Care System.If two or more signs are tracked, the method is referred to as a symptothermal method. Two popular symptothermal systems are taught by theCouple to Couple Leagueand the Fertility Awareness Method (FAM) taught byToni Weschler. A study completed in Germany in 2007 found that the symptothermal method has a method effectiveness of 99. 6%. In Canada, the symptothermal method is taught bySERENA Canadawhich is an inter-denominational organization which has been developing the Symptothermal Method as a part of NFP since 1955.They are also not specifically affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church. It is also taught byJustisse Healthworks for Women, a pro-choice f eminist organization that allows and supports women to combine other methods of birth control with their fertility awareness practice. A study by the World Health Organization involving 869 fertile women from Australia, India, Ireland, the Philippines, and El Salvador found that 93% could accurately interpret their bodys signals regardless of education and culture. In a 36-month study of 5,752 women, the method was 99. 86% effective. Calendar-basedCalendar-based methods determine fertility based on a record of the length of previous menstrual cycles. They include the Rhythm Method and the Standard Days Method. The Standard Days method was developed and proven by the researchers at the Institute for Reproductive Health of Georgetown University. CycleBeads, unaffiliated with religious teachings, is a visual tool based on the Standard Days method. According to the Institute of Reproductive Health, when used as birth control, CB has a 95% effectiveness rating. Computer programs are avai lable to help track fertility on a calendar.Lactational amenorrhea Thelactational amenorrhea method(LAM) is a method of avoiding pregnancy based on the naturalpostpartuminfertilitythat occurs when a woman isamenorrheicand fullybreastfeeding. The rules of the method help a woman identify and possibly lengthen her infertile period. A strict version of LAM is known asecological breastfeeding. Artificial Family Planning/Birth Control, also known ascontraceptionandfertility control, refers to methods or devices used to preventpregnancy. Planning and provision of birth control is calledfamily planning.Safe sex, such as the use of male orfemale condoms, can also help prevent transmission ofsexually transmitted diseases. Contraceptive use indeveloping countries has cut the number ofmaternal deathsby 44% (about 270,000 deaths averted in 2008) but could prevent 73% if the full demand for birth control were met. Becauseteenage pregnanciesare at greater risk of adverse outcomes such aspreterm b irth,low birth weight andinfant mortality, adolescents need comprehensivesex educationand access to reproductive healthservices, including contraception.By lengthening the time between pregnancies, birth control can also improve adult womens delivery outcomes and the survival of their children. Effective birth control methods includebarrierssuch ascondoms,diaphragms, and the contraceptive spongehormonal contraceptionincludingoral pills,patches,vaginal rings, and injectable contraceptives andintrauterine devices(IUDs). Emergency contraceptioncan prevent pregnancy after unprotected sex. Long-acting reversible contraceptionsuch as implants, IUDs, or vaginal rings are recommended to reduceteenage pregnancy.Sterilizationby means such asvasectomyandtubal ligationis permanent contraception. Some people regardsexual abstinenceas birth control, butabstinence-only sex education often increases teen pregnancies when offered without contraceptive education. Non-penetrative sexandoral sexare als o sometimes considered contraception. Birth control methods have been used since ancient times, but effective and safe methods only became available in the 20th century. For some people, contraception involves moral issues, and many cultures limit access to birth control due to the moral and political issues involved.About 222 million women who want to avoid pregnancy in developing countries are not using a modern contraception method. Birth control increaseseconomic growthbecause of fewer dependent children, more women participating in the work force, and less consumption of scarce resources. Womens earnings, assets,body mass index, and their childrens schooling and body mass index all substantially improve with greater access to contraception. Methods of Artificial Family Planning Artificial Family Planning/Birth control includesbarrier methods,hormonal contraception,intrauterine devices(IUDs), sterilization, and behavioral methods.Hormones can bedelivered by injection, by mouth ( orally),placed in the vagina, or implanted under the skin. The most common types of oral contraception include thecombined oral contraceptive pilland theprogestogen-only pill. Methods are typically used before sex butemergency contraceptionis effective shortly after intercourse. Determining whether a woman with one or more illnesses, diseases, risk factors, or abnormalities can use a particular form of birth control is a complex medical question sometimes requiring apelvic examinationor medical tests.TheWorld Health Organization publishes a detailed list of medical eligibility criteria for each type of contraception. Birth control methods * An unrolled malelatex condom * A polyurethanefemale condom * Adiaphragmvaginal-cervicalbarrier, in its case with aquarter U. S. cointo show scale * Acontraceptive spongeset inside its open package * Three varieties ofbirth control pillsin calendar oriented packaging * A transdermal contraceptive patch * ANuva Ringvaginal ring * A hormonalintraute rine device(IUD) against a background showing placement in theuterus *A copper IUD next to a dimeto show scale * A split dose of two emergency contraceptive pills (most morning after pills now only require one) Barrier Barrier contraceptivesare devices that attempt to preventpregnancyby physically preventingspermfrom entering theuterus. They include malecondoms,female condoms,cervical caps,diaphragms, andcontraceptive spongeswithspermicide. The condom is most commonly used duringsexual intercourseto reduce the likelihood ofpregnancyand of spreadingsexually transmitted diseases(STDssuch asgonorrhea,syphilis, andHIV).It is put on a mans erectpenisand physically blocks ejaculated semen from entering the body of a sexual partner. Modern condoms are most often made fromlatex, but some are made from other materials such aspolyurethane,polyisoprene, or lamb intestine. Afemale condomis also available, most often made ofnitrile. Male condoms have the advantage of being inexpensive, easy to u se, and having few side effects. Contraceptive sponges combine a barrier with spermicide. Like diaphragms, they are inserted vaginally prior to intercourse and must be placed over thecervixto be effective.Typical effectiveness during the first year of use is about 84% overall, and 68% among women who have already given birth. The sponge can be inserted up to 24 hours before intercourse and must be left in place for at least six hours afterward. Some people are allergic to spermicide used in the sponge. Women who use contraceptive sponges have an increased risk ofyeast infectionsandurinary tract infections. Leaving the sponge in for more than 30 hours can result intoxic shock syndrome. Hormonal Hormonal contraceptivesinhibitovulationandfertilization.These includeoral pills,subdermalimplants, andinjectable contraceptivesas well as thepatch,hormonal IUDsand thevaginal ring. The most commonly used hormonal contraceptive is thecombined oral contraceptive pillcommonly known as the pillwhi ch includes a combination of anestrogenand aprogestin(progestogen). There is also a progestin-only pill. Currently, hormonal contraceptives are available only for females. Combined hormonal contraceptives are associated with a slight increased cardiovascular risk, including a small increased risk ofvenousandarterial thrombosis. However, the benefits are greater than the risk.Oral contraceptives reduce the risk ofovarian cancerandendometrial cancerwithout increasing the risk forbreast cancer. They can lower body weight by reducingwater retention(not loss of fat), and several are used to treat mild to moderateacne. Between 2% and 10% of women of childbearing age experience emotional and physical symptoms associated withpremenstrual syndrome(PMS) andpremenstrual dysphoric disorder(PMDD). Combination hormonal contraceptives often ameliorate or effectively treat these problems and can effectively treat heavy menstrual bleeding anddysmenorrhea(painful menstruation) as well.Lower doses of estrogen required by vaginal administration (i. e. , from the vaginal ring or hormonal IUDs instead of the pill) may reduce the untoward side effects associated with higher oral doses such as breast tenderness,nausea, and headache. Progestogen-only pills and intrauterine devices are not associated with an increased risk of thromboses and may be used by women with previous venous thrombosis, or hepatitis. In those with a history of arterial thrombosis, non-hormonal birth control should be used. Progestogen-only pills may improve menstrual symptoms such sdysmenorrhea,menorrhagia, premenstrual syndrome, and anemia, and are recommended for breast-feeding women because they do not affect lactation. Irregular bleeding can be a side effect of progestin-only methods, with about 20% of users reportingamenorrhea(often considered a benefit) and about 40% of women experiencing regular menstrual cycles, leaving the remaining 40% with irregular spotting or bleeding. Uncommon side effects of proge stin-only pills, injections, and implants include headache, breast tenderness, mood effects, anddysmenorrhea, but those symptoms often resolve with time.Newer progestins, such as drospirenone and desogestrel, minimize theandrogenicside effects of their predecessors. Intrauterine devices The modernintrauterine device(IUD) is a small T-shaped birth control device, containing either copper or progesterone, which is inserted into the uterus. IUDs are a form oflong-acting reversible contraception, the most effective type of reversible birth control. As of 2002, IUDs were the most widely used form of reversible contraception, with nearly 160 million users worldwide. Evidence supports both effectiveness and safety in adolescents.Advantages of the copper IUD include its ability to provideemergency contraceptionup to five days after unprotected sex. It is the most effective form of emergency contraception available. It contains no hormones, so it can be used while breast feeding, and fertili ty returns quickly after removal. Disadvantages include the possibility of heavier menstrual periods and more painful cramps. Hormonal IUDs do not increase bleeding as copper-containing IUDs do. Rather, they reduce menstrual bleeding or stop menstruation altogether, and can be used as a treatment forheavy periods.Levonorgestrel-releasing IUDs may be used during breastfeeding whether or not they also include copper. Sterilization Surgical sterilizationis available in the form oftubal ligationfor women andvasectomyfor men. There are no significant long term side effects and tubal ligation decreases the risk ofovarian cancer. Some women regret such a decision about 5% over 30 years, and about 20% under 30. Short term complications are less likely from a vasectomy than a tubal ligation. Neither method offers protection fromsexually transmitted nfections. Although sterilization is considered a permanent procedure, it is possible to attempt atubal reversalto reconnect theFallopian tubesin females or avasectomy reversalto reconnect thevasa deferentiain males. The rate of success depends on the original technique, tubal damage, and the persons age. Behavioral Behavioral methods involveregulating the timingor methods of intercourse to prevent introduction of sperm into the female reproductive tract, either altogether or when an egg may be present. LactationalFrom ancient times women have extended breastfeeding in an effort to avoid a new pregnancy. Thelactational amenorrhea method, or LAM, outlines guidelines for determining the length of a womans period of breastfeeding infertility. For women who meet the criteria, LAM is highly effective during the first six months postpartumif breastfeeding is the infants only (or almost only) source of nutrition. Feeding formula, pumping instead of nursing, and feeding solids all reduce the effectiveness of LAM. Fertility awarenessCalendar-based contraceptive methodssuch as the discredited rhythm method and theStandard Days Methode stimate the likelihood of fertility based on the length of past menstrual cycles. To avoid pregnancy with fertility awareness, unprotected sex is restricted to a womans least fertile period. During her most fertile period, barrier methods may be used, or she may abstain from intercourse. The term natural family planning (NFP) is sometimes used to refer to any use of fertility awareness methods. However, this term specifically refers to the practices that are permitted by theRoman Catholic Church.The effectiveness offertility awareness-based methods of contraception is unknown because of the lack of completed standardized and controlled scientific trials. More effective than calendar-based methods, systems of fertility awareness that track basal body temperature, cervical mucus, or both, are known as symptoms-based methods. Teachers of symptoms-based methods take care to distance their systems from the poor reputation of the rhythm method. Many consider the rhythm method to have been obsolete for at least 20 years, and some even exclude calendar-based methods from their definition of fertility awareness.ACycle Beadsbirth control chain, used for a rough estimate of fertility based on days since menstruation TheStandard Days Methodhas a simpler rule set and is more effective than the rhythm method. The Standard Days Method has a typical failure rate of 12% per year. A product calledCycle Beadswas developed alongside the method to help the user keep track of estimated high and low fertility points during her menstrual cycle. The Standard Days Method may only be used by women whose cycles are always between 26 and 32 days in length.In this system * Days 1-7 of a womans menstrual cycle are considered infertile * Days 8-19 are considered fertile considered unsafe for unprotected intercourse * From Day 20, infertility is considered to resume Symptoms-based methods of fertility awareness involve a womans observation and charting of her bodys fertility signs, to determi ne the fertile and infertile phases of her cycle. Charting may be done by hand or with the assistance offertility monitors. Most methods track one or more of the three primary fertility signschanges inbasal body temperature, in cervical mucus, and in cervical position.If a woman tracks both basal body temperature and another primary sign, the method is referred to as symptothermal. Other bodily cues such asmittelschmerzare considered secondary indicators. Unplanned pregnancy rates have been reported from 1% to 20% for typical users of the symptothermal method. Withdrawal Coitus interruptus(literally interrupted sexual intercourse), also known as the withdrawal or pull-out method, is the practice of ending sexual intercourse (pulling out) before ejaculation.The main risk of coitus interruptus is that the man may not perform the maneuver correctly or in a timely manner. Despite older studies claiming that no sperm was found in preejaculatory penile secretion, a more recent study stat es that 41% of subjects produced pre-ejaculatory samples that contained spermatozoa and in 37% a reasonable proportion of the sperm was motile. Abstinence Though some groups advocate totalsexual abstinence, by which they mean the avoidance of all sexual activity, in the context of birth control the term usually means abstinence from vaginally penetrative sexual activity.Abstinence is 100% effective in preventing pregnancy however, not everyone who intends to be abstinent refrains from all sexual activity, and in many populations there is a significant risk of pregnancy from nonconsensual sex. Abstinence-only sex educationdoes not reduceteen pregnancy. Teen pregnancy rates are higher in students given abstinence only education, compared to comprehensive sex education. Some authorities recommend that those using abstinence as a primary method have backup method(s) available (such as condoms or emergency contraceptive pills).Non-penetrativeandoral sex will generally avoid pregnancy, bu t pregnancy can still occur withIntercrural sexand other forms of penis-near-vagina sex (genital rubbing, and the penis exiting fromanal intercourse) where semen can be deposited near the entrance to the vagina and can itself travel along the vaginas lubricating fluids. Emergency (after sex) Emergency contraceptives, or morning-after pills, are drugs taken after sexual intercourse intended to prevent pregnancy. Levonorgestrel(progestin) pills, marketed as Plan B and Next Choice, are available without prescription (to women and men aged 17 and older in the U.S. ) to prevent pregnancy when used within 72 hours (3 days) after unprotected sex or condom failure. Ulipristal(Ella) is the newest emergency contraceptive, available by prescription only for use up to 120 hours (5 days) after unprotected sex, resulting in a pregnancy risk 42% lower than levonorgestrel up to 72 hours and 65% lower in the first 24 hours following sex. Providing morning after pills to women in advance does not aff ect sexually transmitted infection rates, condom use, pregnancy rates, or sexual risk-taking behavior. Pharmacistsare a major source of access to emergency contraception.Morning after pills have almost no health risk, no matter how often they are used. Copper T-shaped IUDs can also be used as emergency contraceptives. Copper IUDs can be inserted up to the time of implantation (612 days after ovulation) but are generally not inserted more than five days after unprotected sex. For every eight expected pregnancies, the use of levonorgestrel morning after pills will prevent seven. Ulipristal is about twice as effective as levonorgestrel. Copper IUDs are more than 99% effective in reducing pregnancy risk.

Butler Lumber Company Case Study Essay

Summary of Facts. butler poke Company is a Pacific Northwest found lumber distributor that sells plywood, moldings, and sash and door products. The sole owner of pantryman Lumber is Mark Butler, accompanied by one administrative assistant and go employees who focus on repairs and labor intensive work. Because of Butler Lumbers competitive pricing scheme, it has seen rapid growth in the past few years. receiv able to the rapid growth and a shortfall of nones in 1990, Butler Lumber Company is seeking to take out an additional lend in order for the business to sustain itself and grow in the coming years. Butler Lumber has the option to accept a loan of $250,000 from suburban content Bank, or accept an unsecured revolving 90- daytime note of $465,000 at 10.5% interest from Northrop matter Bank. If Mr. Butler decides to accept the note from Northrop National depose, it will sever the existing ties with Suburban National Bank and a new relationship must be maintained.Problem. If Mr. Butler accepts the loan from Suburban National Bank, he must agree to a secured loan that is backed by his real property that will act as collateral for the agreed amount of $250,000. Due to Suburban National Banks constraints, Mr. Butler is looking to find a new banking relationship that would allow him to negotiate a much larger unsecured loan. The amount of the loan offered by Suburban National Bank has made Mr. Butler discharge the companys growth potential add-on in sales, but also realize the increase in debt. Since he is limited on his loan and has little hard silver on hand, he has turned to trade credit for the past few years. As consultants, we will investigate the following four key issues * Should Butler Lumber sever ties with Suburban National bank in order to rule a larger loan from Northrop National Bank? * Why does Butler Lumber take a cash paucity problem to begin with, and be they presently using their existing funds efficiently?* How much additional funding does Butler Lumber need, and will they continue to need even more than in the future? * What sort of implications does the firms growth suggest? * Are there Alternative solutions to Butler Lumbers cash shortage problems? Analysis. The need for cash is clear however, there could be multiple opportunities to raise the capital that is needed. It is imperative that Butler Lumber takes into consideration the costs associated with accepting remote financing, and in turn be able to assess whether or not it is the best solution. If relying on external financing is not plausible, Mr. Butler will throw off to search for alternative methods to grow his business whether its finding a different financing solution or a way to supply cash by altering management activities.As we assess Butler Lumbers trading operations from 1988 to 1990, it is clear that his reliance on trade credit and a specific focus on having a very competitive pricing schema has allowed the company to generate r evenue up to this point. Although the company was able to generate revenue at an increasing rate during the given years, Butler Lumber was unable to accumulate any cash in order to fund operations moving forward. We will start by assessing one of the two immediately available options presented for Butler Lumber Butler Lumber laughingstock remain with Suburban National Bank by accepting their loan offer of $250,000. The only app bent advantage of this option lies solely in the fact that the relationship with the bank already exists. The disadvantages are seen in the possibility that Butler Lumber will need additional financing past the initial loan amount, and the offered loan is right off secured (backed by Mr. Butlers real property), signaling that the bank has doubts that Butler Lumber will pay back the loan amount.Though Butler whitethorn be capable of repaying the amount, it is inevitable that the company will need more financing. Due to the banks recent focus on the riskiness of Butler Lumber, this may alter their ability to receive more funding from Suburban National Bank. Mr. Butler could alternatively choose to take the unsecured revolving 90-day note of $465,000 at 10.5% interest from Northrop National Bank. The apparent advantages are it is a more flexible option, it is an unsecured loan that requires no collateral from Mr. Butler, and it is of a larger amount. The big disadvantages are the termination of the banking relationship between Butler Lumber and Suburban National Bank, and the increased interest expense on the loan. Another disadvantage of establishing a LOC with Northrop National Bank is the possibility of restrictions on the company stating that the net working capital be maintained at a level agreed upon by two parties and any increase in fixed assets with approval by Northrop.Also there would be limitations on withdrawals of funds from the business by Mr. Butler. Another advert with the loan is that Butler Lumber would need to draw additional loans from Northrop because the company is unable to pay back the loan amount within the 90 day period due to the lack of cash and liquid assets. -Why does Butler Lumber have a cash shortage problem to begin with ,and are they currently using their existing funds efficiently? The Sources and Uses of Funds brings forth a snapshot of the companys cash flows and illustrates the reason behind Butler Lumbers cash deficit. For the past two years, Butler Lumber has generated negative cash flow from operations, which is alarming for the firm. Given the typical business model of a growing firm, Butler Lumber has seen increases in both the inventory and receivable accounts.This makes sense because the more customers Mr. Butler has, the more inventory he needs to have on hand and given his somewhat lackadaisical approach on payment collection, the amount of receivables is anticipate as well. This could be an issue for the firm, but if Mr. Butler has a strategy to fund operations un til they are able to generate more cash, it will not break the firm. As inventory and receivables grow, an area to hone in on is whether or not these accounts are being turned over in a timely, progressive manner. As seen in the Asset physical exercise Analysis table, the ratios for both receivable and inventory indicate that it is taking a longer period of time to collect money and a is holding on to inventory for much longer (nearly 15% and 10% longer, respectively).It is clear that Butler Lumber is not maximizing operational efficiency and will accrue spear carrier costs as a result. -How much additional funding does Butler Lumber need, and will the firm continue to need even more in the future? After analyzing and projecting Butler Lumbers 1991 Pro Forma Balance Sheet, we have decided to separate the projections when considering the current payable policy and also considering brush offs. We have concluded that Butler Lumber will need additional funding of $409,000 under the c urrent payables policy, and including purchase discounts, they will need $658,000 (seen in usher 1).These figures indicate exactly how Mr. Butler has been operating, relying on specific payment terms with his suppliers and customers. Mr. Butler is using his accounts payable as a sort of leverage (funding) piece of music he searches for external financing, which is quantitatively laid out in Exhibit 4. So the question becomes whether Mr. Butler should take advantage of the 2% purchase discount or continue to rely on the suppliers payment flexibility. The pro-forma analysis we generated is based on recent percent of sales from the years 1988-1990. -What sort of implications does the firms growth suggest?NEED SOMETHING ABOUT HOW THE SALES GROWTH OVERSHOOTS THE SUSTAINABLE GROWTH-Are there Alternative solutions to Butler Lumbers cash shortage problems? If Mr. Butler does not or cannot obtain the loan through Northrop National bank, an alternative option is Recourse Factoring. Recourse Factoring is the exchange off of Accounts receivables where the selling company is still responsible in the event of receivable default. A factor company purchases receivables from other companies and provides the necessary capital for a small fee. This can be very beneficial for companies experiencing problems with cash flows. This could be a potential option for Butler Lumber because they have slow paying clients and an extensive cash shortage problem.Butlers Receivable turnover has decreased from 9.92 in 1988 to 8.5 in 1991 indicating it is taking longer to recover much needed cash. If Butler was able to factor away their receivables they would have more working capital, a flexible funding program that will increase only as their sales increase and also would help Butler take advantage of purchase discounts. If Butler found a Factoring company to take on 75% of their receivables , $317,000 cash would be freed up and eliminate the need for Additional funding. Even if Butler paid a small 2% factoring fee they would still slowly be able to maintain their rapid rate of growth with the current $250,000 of funding through Suburban National Bank.Recommendation Given the analysis of the firm, in order for the firm to continue it will need external financing. The recommendation that we give to Mr. Butler is that he accepts the LOC from Northrop National Bank, but only if the loan does not include any negative covenants such as restrictions on the sale of assets, engaging in other businesses, and voluntary prepayment of other indebtedness. This financing is needed because the expected sales growth exceeds the firms sustainable growth rate and leads to a negative cash flow because of the trends Mr. Butler has displayed regarding his payables and receivables.

Barriers to Learning from Disaster

Barriers to Learning from CatastropheThe being of insurance policies is cited by some bookman as one of the barriers to instructing from catastrophes ( Elliott, et al. , 2000 ) . in that location is a misconception among the members of the populace that one time you have taken an insurance policy, it go forth take attention of all your jeopardies. In virtually instances insurance allow for non cover hurricane harm, inundations among other jeopardies which are black. Persons and concern organisations have constantly viewed readiness cost as expensive and besides excessively complicated ( Elliott et al. , 2000 ) .The perceptual take care that catastrophes happen everyplace and that they can non be avoided is another barrier to larning from their happening. This perceptual experience and attitude is unsafe, but it can be overcome through gage readiness and analysis. Most people have close entree to adequate supplies of nutrient and H2O, this is unsafe because these people are ev er comfy and takes small or no precautional go to forestall a catastrophe from reoccurring ( Elliott et al. , 2000 ) .The construct of personal duty poses another barrier. Peoples are brought up believing that they can ever turn to name aid lopes such as 911 in instance of an indispensableness. Some state of affairss may happen forestalling the forces in charge of exigency from making in clip. As a consequence, many people fail to larn how to last on their ain without the aid of other individuals ( Lawson, 2013 ) .The inclination of transposition incrimination for an sinister happening provides another barrier. If an organisation is entirely responsible for a catastrophe due to miss of readiness, it should research the causes and non faulting other persons. If the incrimination is jump elsewhere, such organisations fail to larn from the occurrence of the catastrophe.Where there is a deficiency of trust in an organisation, the informational flow, indispensable for organisation al acquisition and crisis direction can be distorted. In the absence of trust, full revelation will besides non be available therefore suppressing honestness. For case, the inclination to fault a pilot in instance of an hap masks all factors that contributed to the accident which might hold been an of importee lesson to such a pilot ( Lawson, 2013 ) .When we experience a catastrophe, we tend to research our failures to forestall and expect inauspicious events, likely that have long periods of incubation. In most instances, the premises made and the nucleus beliefs normally have an influence on the usage or maturation of precautional steps. If we base our precautional steps on false premises, our control systems and all defence mechanisms in topographic point will be a failure, which may non attest itself unless triggered to expose them. These defences make it hard for a state or an single to cover with events when they really occur, given that catastrophe is normally unhoped-for and pressing. Sometimes fortunes taking to a catastrophe in an organisation can be alone and the available eventuality programs may non hold incorporated schemes on how to cover with them. Poor readyings or programs based false premises can take to projecting incriminations and denial. Until the ruinous event has occurred, so the state can non go on to deny the chance of the event happening. The denial procedure will suppress our ability to larn after the event ( Boulter et al. , 2013. ) .When a catastrophe occurs, it creates a circumstance which lies outside the usual direction pattern and more frequently it will transcend the authoritiess or managers experience and accomplishments. Crisis is a period of uncertainnesss and many activities, and accordingly there is small clip for larning and contemplation.Governments and directions will seek to hold legitimacy from their citizens and the stakeholders as they deal with the events wake. They will most evidently project incrimination to person or elsewhere. This will do the acquisition after the crisis much more hard. Therefore, larning will seldom follow catastrophe. Failure to larn a lesson from the happening of an inauspicious event will present a menace for return of similar events in the hereafter and the authorities or directions will recur errors that they had made earlier. It is hence of import for the authoritiess and organisations to non merely learn from their errors but besides from the errors made by other organisations or states ( Katrina, 2008 ) .Effective communicating is highly of import during a catastrophe. Feedback will assist forestall the incident from developing into a ruinous event. This can merely happen if organisations can hold both ostracise and positive feedbacks. Effective thought is paramount in these state of affairss as it will take to the development of new positions and new significance to catastrophe. In most instances, organisations experience individual looped feedback and therefore individual looped larning. There is a demand for cultural readjustment which must non be an on and off occasions, but should be evaluated on a regular basis both in footings of aims and purposes ( Elliott et al. , 2000 ) .Time can besides impede effectual acquisition from a catastrophe. No paperss may hold been maintained, memories will melt with clip, participants will decease and the juncture becomes blurred as clip base on ballss. It is much more hard to larn from past catastrophes because of the modern engineerings which have taken case in point. Operators of modern equipment may non understand what the engineering can make for them therefore supplying fewer chances for acquisition.Our nicety will besides impact the ability to larn from past happenings. The records of a catastrophe will ever be tainted by the civilization of the people bring forthing the record. This makes those reading past events to believe that it would merely go on in that specific background ( Moresco and Peek, 2013 ) .Distance is besides a hinderance to be learned from catastrophes. Hazard directors will ever inquire how an event that took topographic point 1000s of stat mis off and likely in another continent, will supply an penetration. When menace directors impose their ain civilizations on others, the distant events appear unsuitable uneven, or unimportant. Differences in clime, architecture and geographics will impact the procedure of larning from catastrophes. The jurisprudence will germinate with clip and within a given civilization. When people, look behind at what happened at the clip when there was no jurisprudence, or, under different jurisprudence, they may neglect to understand what lessons are applicable in the present life ( Bonner, 2000 ) .Poverty and deficiency of way people with small or no instruction be given to be nescient about issues that do non hold immediate reverberations. They tend to take small or no precautional steps to assist forestall a catastrophe from reoccurring.MentionsBonner, A. , 2000.Interrupting Barriers to Learn From Past Catastrophes.1st erectile dysfunction. Toronto Allan Bonner Communications Management Inc..Boulter, S. , Palutikof, J. P. , Karoly, D. J. & A Guitart, D. , 2013..Natural catastrophes and version to climate alteration.1st erectile dysfunction. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Elliott, et al. , 2000. Organizational conduct ( Analysis ) .Management-Problem Solving,3 ( 21 ) .Katrina, N. d. a. a. H. , 2008.Harry Ward Richardson Peter Gordon James Elliott Moore.1st erectile dysfunction. Cheltenham, U.K. Northampton, Ma Edward Elgar, .Lawson, C. , 2013. Disaster Management & A Risk Reduction. 13 March.Moresco, J. & A Peek, L. A. , 2013. The manner forrard get the better ofing barriers to disaster hazard decrease.NATURAL HAZARDS OBSERVER,1 January.37 ( 3 ) .

American domestic life after World War II Essay

Assess some of the important changes to take place in American domestic life after World war II.This essay provide deal with the following changes which took place in American domestic life after World War II the growth in community and mobility, suburbanization, the consequences of suburbanization in the cities, the role of wowork force in the post- contend years and the status of African Americans. The Second World War brought suffering, destruction and devastation in Europe and to the rest of the world. Ironically, America, for her relatively slight sacrifices, gained an unprecedented growth in the saving which manifested in booming industries in all spheres of America. In the foremost two decades after the war, America was transformed on such a scale that the rest of the economic powers could not match her in many decades to come.The American rescue had grown during World War II, entirely it grew even stronger after the War. The American Gross National Product (GNP) inc reased from $200 billion in 1940 to $300 billion in 1950 plainly it reached$ viosterol billion in 19601. The advances in technological reading during the war have been transferred to manufacturing cars, televisions, washing machines, refrigerators, vacuum cleaners and several another(prenominal) domestic gadgets. As the economy was growing, so the wages increased which meant that new products were made and sold constantly. Television became a major part of Americas daily life, which not notwithstanding provided the entertainment but it also exposed the people to advertisements and commercials.The unsuspecting public was buying all kind of devices available whether they were necessary or not. Advertising managers pull in the power of commercials and huge financial gains therefore concentrated on improving their art of enticing the public. Computer technology had replaced the large and slow machines so the economy prospered rapidly. The result was the American essence class mov ed up the ladder and became upper middle class and some of the weeing class stepped up towards middle class. In contrast, African Americans and the poor albumen population stayed at the bottom of the pile and were not given the same opportunities to share the fruit of the prosperity.The birth-rate increased during the war but it peaked after the war. The population increased by 19 million in the 1940s, which was over twice the rise in the 1930s and subsequent jumped up to 29 million in the 1950s. Although the rising birth rate was the main reason for the population growth, so the advancement in curing the illnesses meant that the close rate decreased. Therefore the average life expectancy for whites was 70 years and for chars 642. As the population grew the people started moving towards the Pacific states more quickly than the other parts of America. The cities in Southwest grew more rapidly, for example Houston, Albuquerque, Tucson, and Phoenix. Los Angeles replaced Philadelph ia as the third largest city, and California took over spic-and-span York as Americas most thickly settled state.In the 1950s the white middle class population moved out of crowded cities to the suburban areas. They moved to suburban areas to buy their own theatres with gardens and garages. The create industry met the growing demand of new and let out lodging at faster rate than ever. The houses were built by developers such as William Levitt on a massive scale which were cheap, simple but comfortable. However, many American did not like the new housing developments and labelled them,ugly boxes arranged in circles specially the architect profession. Architectural critic Lewis Mumford described such suburbs asa multitude of ordered, unidentifiable houses, lined up inflexibly, at uniform distances, on uniform roads, in treeless communal wasteland, inhabited by people of the same class, the same income, the same wage group.3The ownership of these houses was helped along through national Housing Administration (FHA) and Veterans Administration (VA) who provided the loans on easy terms. The other factor was the availability of cars people no longer depended on public transport. Car toil increased from 2 million in 1946 to 8 million in 1955. The government began to build the highways on a large scale and linked them with antithetic parts of the country. In June 1956, Congress authorised $32 billion to build new highways. By creating 56,000 miles of highways, federal government helped industry and commerce to move extracurricular the cities4. The justification was that it would not only make peoples journeys easier it would also make the evacuation quicker in the event of nuclear war.Whatever the penury was businesses began to realise where their future lay, so they began to move their businesses to suburbs. New shopping centres were built all over the country with entertainment, leisure and sports facilities. As a result, employment was brought to the l imen step and so people no longer travelled to cities to spend their money. Instead people from cities came to suburban areas to spend their dollars. The black people, the other minorities, and the poor part of the white population shopped in their localities where quality was decreasing and prices were increasing. For these ever growing mobile customers the franchise system was established. The first franchise right was bought from a fast-food nerve by a young entrepreneur Ray Kroc, and then gradually the franchise system became a prominent pattern in the country.While the Levitt development was satisfying one section of the community, the rest of the building industry started to cater for a wider range of income groups. These housing developments included shopping centres, schools, and churches. The private builders were proving to be booming in providing housing for Americans suburban families. Soon, all over the country the pattern was repeated as moderate-income families set tled for inexpensive prefabricated dwellings in the fringes of the cities. These were in part for the war veterans helped by FHA and VA, but these facilities were not available to black war veterans.The richesier population chose architect-designed houses in suburbia. However, again this development was mainly for the white population and was not available to blacks. This meant that segregation and discrimination was systematically continued and deepened the division between two races. The white population was moving out of crowded cities to better housing and a cleaner environment, and blacks were moving into the cities where the living standard was low, but factory work and other manual jobs were available to them. The result was that as the white population declined in the cities the black population increased. Other minorities such as Hispanics and Native Americans did not share in the benefits of the American Dream and like black people were treated as second-class citizens.On the surface, cities were losing out to suburban areas as the races shifted. Indeed, some fundamental changes were taking place underneath the American affectionate fabric was changing with equal speed. The gap was not only widening between the living standards of white people, it was becoming more prominent between cultures but it was ignored in the daze of prosperity.The building industry was helped by several Congressional laws to build the new houses in suburban areas. By 1972 some 11 million families owned their own houses with the help of the FHA. 22 million people had cleansed their properties with the aid of the VA in owner-occupied units. Some people were paying few for their mortgages on their new houses than they would have paid in rent for their rooms in the city. The FHA reinforced the racial segregation policy by refusing to assist the racially mixed cities to build new houses or improve the old ones. According to an administrator, it is a conservative business oper ation rather than a programme of providing housing for all social groups on an equal bases5.Consequently, the black population was not only deprived from better housing they were losing out from all the other facilities high-priced healthcare, recreational facilities, and better shopping facilities. The impact of the firms and white population moving out from the cities to suburban areas was that jobs and tax revenue were no longer available to improve the urban areas. In addition, the older and larger manufacturing firms were making losses and declining while tailor-made factories in suburban areas were growing and extending and creating new jobs. The blacks were expecting that their sacrifices during the war would be appreciate and acknowledged by sharing in the economic boom, but instead they were overlooked once again.After the war women were expected to return to their traditional roles, whereas during the war they took over the jobs of servicemen and adjusted to their new ro les comfortably. However, on their return from the War, men were given their jobs back and the women reluctantly retreated to their homes. Some women carried on working and others got married, stayed at home and looked after their children. Although women adjusted to their shifting roles, doubts and questions were beginning to surface. Women were again pulled back into the job market during the Korean and Vietnam wars. The labour saving devices in the home gave women freedom to work outside the home.Women also found it necessary to work in order to secure their newly defined identity. The number of working women doubled between 1940 and 1960. earlier to the Second World War, the majority of employed married woman came from a lower income family, but in the post-war women from middle class joined in as the first group tailored off. During the 1950s and 1960s, the women contributed 15 to 25 percent to their household income6. Women increased their white-collar jobs at a faster rate t han men during the 1970s, but by the end of the decade they were still at the bottom of wage scale.It is a fact that after World War II, in the first two decades the fall in States economy grew at such a scale that it has changed American society and its standing in the world as a superpower. The wealth generated in those post-war years had been used in the development of the countrys infrastructure. The advances in living standards, schools, research, training for engineers and scientists and improved farming techniques as well as the network of highways meant that America was transformed.The technological advances were not limited to provide consumer goods they also made the American military machine the most advanced force in the world. America won the space race, but it failed to include its black race in their astronomical and earthly achievements. However, the scale of its economic and technological achievements was matched by the severance in the social fabric of the nation as its inequalities and injustices were magnified. The implications of the divisions created by this skewed economic growth will have its effects in the centuries to come, in racial tension, in domestic crime and social trends, and internationally as American culture is adopted as an aspiration for a globalise and consumer-centric world.BibliographyBooksChafe, W.H. The Unfinished travel America since World War II. Fourth Edition(Oxford University Press 1999).Issel, W. The Contemporary United States Social Change in the United States 1945-1983(London Macmillan Publishers LTD1985).Winkler, A.M. novel America United States from World War II to the Present.(New York Harper & Row Publishers 1985).Boyer, P.at al. The Enduring Vision A History of the American People. Concise 4th edition (Boston, 2002).Brogan, H. The Penguin History of the USA. New edition (London Penguin 2001)1 A.M.Winkler, Modern America United States from World War 11 to present.p.82.2 Ibid.,p.843 W. H. Chafe. The Unf inished Journey America since World War II. p.117.4W. Issel. The Contemporary United States Social change in the United States. p. 92.5 W. Issel. The Contemporary United States Social change in the United States. P. 90.6 A.M. Winkler. Modern America United States from World War 11 to the Present. p.78.

Mao Zedong’s Legacy

monoamine oxidase Zedong (Mao Tse Tung) was a Marxist theorist and soldier who led the Chinese communistic revolution, later became the Communist Partys leader and eventually became the head of state and Party chairman. While he did not entirely rule chinaware on his own, he can be regarded as the modern chinawares principal architect.1 Mao is largely credited for the programs the Great jumping preliminary and the Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution.Under Chairman Mao, Chinas communism ideologically deviated from that practiced in the Soviet Union on news report of the emphasis placed by the former on the role of the countryside peasantry in the communist revolution, a factor ignored in the Soviet paradigm concentrate on on the urban classes.The Great Leap was an economic and social plan of Communist China under Mao Zedong to rapidly industrialize the then generally agricultural-based country. The plan hoped to modernize the communist state by turning it into an industrial- based economy. It was however an economic debacle and aggravated by natural disasters, leading to the starvation and remnant of millions. The Cultural Revolution, on the other, was designed by Mao to get back at Party members who wanted to undermine his leadership.2Maos policies were a mix of successes and failures. Millions died largely because of the inwrought flaws of the Great Leap economic policy. Millions were executed under the reforms of the Cultural Revolution but in return, millions of proletariat farmers were awarded their own land to till.Among the long-term consequences of Maos Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution policies was the decade-long widespread disruption in urban China of the education of many Chinese, giving their generation career and productivity disadvantages.3 entirely Maos programs did leave lasting advantages for China, including the legacy of a considerably successful space program, nuclear weapon capability and the acquisition of a strategic t erritory. 4While the death gong under his leadership totaled to millions of Chinese who died either by executions or of famine, the architectural designing of China under his rule placed the country on the road to being a regional economic and political power that she is today. China is in fact currently being perceived by no less than the United States as a potential military threat. Pan, Esther.5ReferencesGiles, John. Park, Albert Zhang, Juwei. The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, Disruptionsto Education, And Returns to Schooling in Urban China. Retrieved 6 Dec. 2006Kane, Thomas and Serewicz, Lawrence. Chinas lust The Consequences of a Rising Demandfor Food and Energy. Parameters (Autumn 2001). Retrieved Dec. 6, 2006 from the U.S.Army Accessions Command Website http//carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/01autumn/Kane.htm.Is China a Regional Military Threat. (18 October, 2005).Mao Zedong. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved December 7, 2006, from EncyclopdiaBritannica 2006 Ultimate Reference cortege DVD.Mao Zedong. (2006, December 7). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 1247,December 7, 2006, from http//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mao_Zedong&oldid=92619408..1 Mao Zedong. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved December 7, 2006, from Encyclopdia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD . 2 Mao Zedong. (2006, December 7). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 1247, December 7, 2006, from http//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mao_Zedong&oldid=92619408 3 Giles, John Park, Albert Zhang, Juwei. The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, Disruptions to Education, And Returns to Schooling in Urban China. Retrieved 6 Dec. 2006 from The William Davidson Institute At The University of Michigan Website http//www.wdi.umich.edu/files/old/EDTS/Papers/ John_Giles_cultural_revolution.pdf. 4Kane, Thomas and Serewicz, Lawrence, Chinas Hunger The Consequences of a Rising Demand for Food and Energy. Parameters, ( Autumn 2001). Retrieved Dec. 6 , 2006 from the U.S. Army Accessions Command Website http//carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/01autumn/Kane.htm. 5 Is China a Regional Military Threat? 18 October, 2005. Retrieved from the Council on Foreign Relations Website http//www.cfr.org/publication/9052/is_china_a_regional_military_threat.html.

Discuss the various roles of social work which need to be employed in addressing ‘transphobia’

Transphobia is a recent phenomenon in the forum of Social Work and inequalities a term thats tagged on at the end of the line of inequalities faced by large number from the differing community factions that dont fit into the mould of societal norms of conventionally white, patriarchal expectations. Despite the profusion of papers on wider trans sexual urge issues, there is a paucity of research discussing Social Worker and Mental Health practician interventions and their considered graphemes this is given the emergence of trans issues in the UK thus highlighting the dissilient need for debate.Consideration has to be given to the conflicts that exist on the use of the trans sex activity label, and specifically how it fits in with existence of the bi-polar binary sex activity system (Monro 2002) practitioners ought to consider a wider remit that includes non just the traditionally considered core elements of transsexual and transvestite people, except notably, the one-third dif ferent spheres of transgenderism which embraces those who be biologically, heartyly or morphologically transgendered (Laframbiose 2003), muchover, the recognition that the philosophies and politics behind the issues of transgenderism no longer belongs to a small community that practitioners will rarely come across in their careers, but instead on a daily basis to a whole range of individuals that do not relieve societys typically patriarchal expectations of male and female, including those that fit step to the foreside the bi-polar gender binary system but who do not adopt the trans label.The new reality that practitioners face is that, daily, there is increasing potential of civiliseing with individuals who deviate from the traditional notion of gender binaries, including those people who arguably deviate to a trans role, but who dont adopt the label though non-the-less experience transphobia a contradiction in monetary value requiring pause for constructive reflection.Init ial stages of practitioner interventionIn order to ascertain practitioner roles, there is a need for full appreciation of the barriers in conforming to the norms of the wider society in general. Traditional psychological paradigms are starting to move with rational health providers working towards de-pathologising trans individuals as having normal mental health (Cole and Meyer, 1998 in Raj, 2002) the inference here is that transgender is not a psychological problem, but more that the problem is handed over to individuals in society who fail to admit the maverick variations of gender roles and identity a similar pattern follows with the social model of disability, which argues that it isnt the impairments that causes the problems of disability, but that the responsibility for disability is placed squarely on society (Oliver, 1990) I argue that this lateral notion is no different, perhaps pioneering a new definition and need for nascent debate for a Social Model of Transgenderism. Practitioners should adopt clear aims to apply the core values of Social Work (Thompson, 2000), thus ensuring they work within an anti-oppressive framework which authorises trans individuals to access a range of services to which they are entitled. check to observations by Raj (2002), there is the requirement to express an attitude that is respectful, sensitive, accepting, validating, affirming, empathic, caring, compassionate, encouraging, supportive, and mutually desireing and trustworthy the Social Model notion mentioned earlier would welfare the relationship between the service provider and customerRaj goes on to add that this approach ensures an honest negotiation for services that is informed by a mutual contract of respect and trust for individually some other this is currently negated by the specific experiences of transsexual people in the UK who are subjected to various hoops to obtain the treatments they desire, as according to Eyre in her work for Charing Cross, she advises the need for gender identity clinics to become more node foc employ (1999), signifying that potential conflicts still exist between professionals and differing trans client groups who fear in person negative outcomes of practitioner interventions, an issue that should to be addressed to ensure that the needs of transgender people are being considered appropriately and respectfully.Roles within practitioner interventionThe three main areas of work with which practitioners are concerned with are to work in effect and efficiently with trans individuals following standards of conduct laid downwardly by the GSCC (2002), to work effectively with the agencies who can assist trans people and thirdly, to use a pertinent role enabling individuals to move forward with their lives, roles that are important to enable individuals contend with feelings of hopelessness and a lack of self worth, some even attempt suicide furthermore, according to Monro (2000), she broadly writesEconomic exclusion is one use of transphobia, unless gender double people are able to successfully pass as male or female, are frequently victims of violence and abuse and like intersex people, are socially invisible with hardly any representation in the media, social policy and sexual minorities, and lack service provision in areas such as education, the family and the penal system.If trans people regularly experience these ranges of prejudices, the urgency becomes clear for practitioners to engage trans individuals in resolving these injustices, accordingly facilitating their rightful integration as equal citizens furthermore, the National tie beam of State Mental Health Program Directors indicates that not all trans individuals are at the same stage of self-acceptance and identity development (1999) this suggests that there are issues to be addressed in terms of trans peoples comfort levels in coming out and disclosing their minority status. Any practitioners intervention should asse ss for individuals development in terms of their mental health, stress levels, self concept and access to social supports.Recognising that discrimination against trans people is pervasive in this society (T.A.P. 1999), practitioners are faced with issues of prejudices experienced on a daily basis by individuals which includes being denied housing, employment, medical treatment, legal protection or some aspects of hate crime in the community. During 1999, transsexual individuals met with key figures at a local health authority to look at patients clinical needs as they would for any other group (PFC, 1999) this experience contributed to the development of initial recommendations to the parliamentary Forum, which resulted in the Report of Interdepartmental Working Group Transsexual People in April 2000 (Home Office).This experience just now highlights how by acting in a significant activist role and engaging individuals in small, localised issues of concern, can prove to be a stimula ting and empowering experience and shows how such efforts by trans people can be used to good effect in proposals for a national governmental initiative thus helping to further break down the barriers of transphobia.As advocates, it is essential to recognise the difficult positions that some trans individuals find themselves. Given that advocacy is some issue we approach others to take on board (Scottish Executive 2002) trans people become vulnerable as a result of the transphobic prejudices they face whether on a national scale via bad media experiences, or more directly from incidents within the local community. Some trans people do not have the close connections of friends and family to give the support that is required.The practitioners role in this case would be to ensure that trans individuals have a facility to speak out so that their views and feelings can be expressed in a safe environment without prejudice, and being an effective advocate that sees things from a trans pers ons perspective can empower individuals to make their own decisions, work a way forward and make some waves to resolve their difficulties. This has to be done on their terms and allows them to be in control of the whole process for example, it is easy for advocates to do e genuinelything on an individuals behalf, though is it only true advocacy if the trans individual was given the power to decide whether the practitioner acts on their behalf, or acts as an influential professional enabling the individual to do things for themselves.Practitioners effectively act as the link between individuals and the agencies and resources available to them. An example of the work of a broker is perhaps that of the financial advisor, familiar with the availability of financial packages in this respect, the practitioner needs to have a very clear familiarity of the agencies, services and packages available to the trans individual. Despite scant resources, there are important organisations including , but not limited to, the Gender Trust, Beaumont Society, GIRES and PFC, each offering specific roles to trans people. ane of the aims of GIRES (2003), is to provide education on gender identity issues they offer financial support for the educational work carried on at local level by trans people who are unemployed or on low incomes. Understanding the eligibility of these funding resources is just as important as realising the different target groups that each of the remaining organisations are aimed at.In carrying out day to day work, the Trans-Yorks Project (2003) gives inspirational examples of work undertaken by trans people within Yorkshire and Humberside Trans-Yorks is an organisation run for and by trans people, though needless to say, many lessons can be learnt from observing a spue giving ideas for practitioners to take on board in other areas. The launch coordinator also acted as the initiator who was responsible for bringing together the components of the voluntary org anisation in so many different ways, which ranged from providing a telephone support helpline, watchword e-mail list, resourceful website, newsletter, information library, fundraising and social events.What resulted was the development of a constitution and a committee of trans people charged with the daily running of the groups activities forging what is a forward thinking voluntary organisation which empowers local trans people to partake in the wider community and raise their own sense of identity, confidence and self esteem. oft can be learned here in develop the same resources elsewhere in the UK.Educating others about the issues of transphobia and trans lifestyles requires practitioners to become fully informed they need to be knowledgeable in order to be effective, and can certainly provide a useful role in highlighting to trans individuals that the problems they have may strong not be of their doing certainly, being told that they have been the subjects of victimisation, bullying and harassment can be empowering, and moreover, engages individuals to realise that there are acts, resources and agencies that can assist in overcoming the problems they face.An example is that the Protection from Harassment manage (1997) can be a powerful tool in engaging the individual with their local police force to resolve issues of hate crimes that have been made against them. Issues bear if the practitioner is not able to communicate this information effectively so that it is easily understood.Practitioners are often engaged in an Enabler role with individuals enabling a trans individual to cope with transitional stress from one gender to another, in being able to come to terms with, find and accept their own sense of gender identity, along with developing their place in the community is an important role to acknowledge. CCETSW (in Thompson 2000) explained the process of ensuring people have opportunities to explore their own strengths, and then break down the pr oblems that they have into components so that they could be tackled more easily this process will generally include establishing some aims and goals such as ascertaining access to education, obtaining and maintaining work, or simply finding new friends in the local community.Issues arise in overcoming trans peoples sense of poor self esteem and confidence, and so counselling skills formed from social work theories can be used in collaboration with other agencies and community projects, proving of benefit to the trans individual. It is worth noting that the majority of trans people, once they have settled their identity along the gender spectrum, often feel quite happy and contribute to society however, there are some individuals who would benefit from being informed about the benefits of social work interventions at a level that best suits them, but which does not oppress them into an interventionists contract.A key task for practitioners is being selectd with facilitating activiti es with local client groups, thus encouraging people to bring their ideas together either in brainstorming sessions, or opportunities that contribute to policy development or new initiatives to benefit the trans community and self defined by the group itself. As the facilitator in these situations, the essential part of a regular role for practitioners. According to Iowa State University (1992), developing a partnership of trust and ensuring everyone is fully involved in unity to achieve an agreed objective is the most essential task.This is a process that worked very well for Bockting et al (1999) who were charged with the task of getting together community representatives to develop an educational HIV prevention package for transgender people the effective facilitation of this project resulted in increased partnership which led to a more effective campaign working towards promoting better health amongst transgender people.As in any other community, conflicts and problems do arise, and one of the key practitioner roles in any case is that of mediation in order to resolve conflicts and problems not just for the trans individuals, but also those fast related to them one example specifically relates to a call in mediation in relation to trans parents, their partners and their children and often, Social Work practitioners are called in by the Childrens a Families section to make an assessment in terms of The Children Act 1989 and the Family Law Act 1996.According to Press for Change (2002) when a custody dispute develops, the courts reluctantly award custody to the trans parent thus frequently place very severe restrictions on access, sometimes wholly forbidding access this relates well with the fact that s.1 of The Children Act (1989) considers the interests of the child as being paramount and commonly, the trans birth parent will often feel oppressed and discriminated against this is further compounded by the fact that the other parent and their social worker might assess that children could be disturbed by contact with a parent that has a trans identity. This therefore necessitates the role of mediation which enables the practitioner to educate and explain the situation to the close relations and friends to ensure contact is not lost and that access to their children is not prevented.In much of this, the role of negotiator is often called for, and is not dissimilar to that of the neutral mediator. Getting a consensus even between the different factions of the trans community, and the agencies charged with providing a service to them does involve fighting for a middle ground that all sides can settle down to in order to achieve a consensus between all sides the head teacher is, just what is there to negotiate? A look back on all the different roles that practitioners play will reveal the deep seated transphobia that trans people face in their lives, and in every aspect of intervention with trans people will mean coming to the bargainin g table to achieve the one thing that trans people seek to achieve, a sense of fairness, justice and most all, the right to equality and respect.ConclusionRaj (2002) made some important recommendations in working towards an boilers suit goal of providing a transpositive and therapeutic approach that is trans affirmative and which considers individual trans individuals using a best fit approach the suggestion here is that rather than perhaps working to a gender binary approach, that instead a reflexive role be taken on which accommodates and appreciates the needs of the specific gender that an individual feels to be, even if it doesnt fit in with societal norms thus eliminating any opportunities for transphobia to occur in the relationship with practitioner and the individual Indeed, the practitioner can apply their role appropriately depending on the trust setting, and that the needs, wishes and feelings of the individual trans person are taken into consideration first and foremos t, and certainly before those of the practitionerFurthermore, the recommendations given by Raj are significant in that suggestions are given for ongoing professional development ensuring that practitioners are aware of current trends and issues in transgenderism. Not only will such an approach ensure a more effective collaboration between practitioner and individual, but also assures the individual will not only receive the best quality professional response, but that the agency can report an increasingly value for money service which responds to, and is accepted by the trans community.